MEDICINAL PLANTS - O.O. Annamuhammedova - 2014

I. Theoretical Part

Topic: Chemical Composition of Medicinal Plants

Objective: to examine the main groups of active substances in Medicinal Plants and their medical Applications.

Outline:

1. Concept of Primary and secondary metabolites.

2. Main groups of active substances. Origin and application:

· CARBOHYDRATES;

· Glycosides, their Classification, and medical use;

· alkaloids;

· phenols, classification, and medical use;

· Flavonoids;

· terpenoids;

· minerals;

· phytoncides, Plant HORMONES;

· Proteins, Enzymes;

· Vitamins.

Key terms and concepts of the topic: primary and secondary metabolites, glycosides, alkaloids, phenols, terpenoids, Essential Oils, Gums, mucilages, flavonoids, phytoncides.

Questions for independent study:

1. Plant origin, physiological significance, and application of vitamins.

2. Plant origin, physiological significance, and application of proteins, enzymes, and hormones.

QUESTIONS FOR SELF-analysis and self-assessment:

1. What criterion serves as the basis for classifying substances into primary and secondary metabolites?

2. Which physicochemical properties determine the medical applications of carbohydrates?

3. Specific features of glycoside application.

4. What is the physiological action of saponins?

5. What factors determine the level of alkaloid accumulation in a plant?

6. What properties of essential oils determine their applications?

1. Every plant consists of Water and dry matter. Plant dry matter can be divided into two groups: organic and mineral. Organic substances produced by a plant or excreted by it As a result of METABOLISM are called metabolites. They are subdivided into primary synthesis substances, or Biosynthesis products, and secondary synthesis substances.

Primary synthesis substances, or primary metabolites, include proteins (plant enzymes, Lectins, etc.), Lipids and lipid-like substances of PLANT AND ANIMAL origin, carbohydrates (oligo- and Polysaccharides), and organic acids.

2. Carbohydrates are a very large Class of naturally occurring Organic compounds that play a major energy role and also serve as a Starting Material for numerous biosynthetic processes. Carbohydrates are primarily an important dietary component (up to 400 g in the form of sugar or starch). For diabetic patients, sugar is replaced by fructose, which is 2–2.5 times sweeter than sucrose.

Polysaccharides are classified into Homopolysaccharides and Heteropolysaccharides. Homopolysaccharides include amylopectin, Glycogen, Cellulose, and inulin. Heteropolysaccharides include pectin, gums, and mucilages. Their medical applications are based on their colloid-chemical properties. The most important of these is The ability to swell in water, forming a gel. Taken orally, they are among the most mechanically effective agents for stimulating intestinal peristalsis. In small doses, thanks to their fluid-absorbing property, they are used as demulcents and astringents (for diarrhea). When applied to inflamed mucous membranes or Skin, carbohydrates form a protective "film" that shields and absorbs irritant molecules through colloidal particles. Some polysaccharides exhibit antibacterial and antiviral activity, such as those found in plantain.

Dietary fiber is the most widespread polysaccharide in nature, forming the main framework of Plant Cell Walls. In recent years, it has been proven that dietary fiber, especially certain types, is digested by The Human Body. It stimulates intestinal peristalsis, promotes The excretion of harmful Cholesterol, plays a vital role in the synthesis of B vitamins (especially cyanocobalamin) as well as phylloquinone, and positively affects Blood pressure and Liver metabolic processes. Cotton wool consists of 95% dietary fiber, making it the primary dressing

material. Sphagnum (peat) moss is also rich in hemicellulose and phenol-like substances. This plant exhibits significant hygroscopic, bactericidal, and bacteriostatic properties, and is widely used as a dressing material.

Gums. Certain tree species exude a gummy sap as a result of injury. Upon exposure to air, it hardens, thereby sealing the wound. This is characteristic of plants from the Rosaceae and Fabaceae families. Gums are used in the form of mucilaginous solutions as a soothing agent in cough mixtures, and as emulsifiers and binding agents for intestinal disorders.

Mucilages are high-molecular-weight Nitrogen-free substances. True mucilages, which are based on mucic acid, include those found in flaxseed, linden blossom, and marshmallow ROOT. False mucilages include those derived from orchid tubers (which are based on oxalic acid), as well as mucilages from Schisandra and Algae containing lichenin or laminarin.

Agar derived from algae and flaxseed is a component of specialized preparations: they are among the safest laxatives available. The body does not develop a tolerance to them, allowing for long-term use. The Main sources of mucilaginous substances include agar, gum arabic, coltsfoot leaves and flowers, Iceland moss, flaxseed, and mallow flowers and leaves.

Alginic acid and alginates. These are the most important polysaccharides found in brown algae (located within The plant cell walls).

Aqueous solutions of alginic acid salts (alginates) form a continuous continuous film upon drying. They can serve as hemostatic agents because dissolved alginates react with blood calcium to form an insoluble alginate, sealing the wound with a protective film. Alginic acid and alginates are widely used as thickening agents in the preparation of ointments, creams, and gels.

Glycosides constitute a large group of plant-derived compounds composed of a carbohydrate moiety and a non-carbohydrate moiety known as an aglycone (or genin). The aglycone is responsible for the pharmaceutical activity of the glycoside, though the carbohydrate portion is equally essential for optimal efficacy. Without it, the aglycone may fail to enter the bloodstream and exert its therapeutic effect. Thus, the carbohydrate acts as a carrier for the bitter, potent active component.

Glycosides are synthesized in plants to detoxify highly reactive aglycones produced during metabolic processes within the plant Organism.

Based on their pharmacological properties, glycosides are classified into cardiac glycosides, bitter glycosides, anthraquinone glycosides (laxatives), saponins (foaming agents), anthocyanins (pigments), and others.

Depending on their chemical Structure, glycosides are divided into 11 distinct groups.

Some of these include:

- Cyanogenic (nitrile) glycosides. These contain hydrogen cyanide as their aglycone. This group includes glycosides found in bitter almonds, cherry laurel leaves, apricot kernels, as well as apple and quince seeds.

- Phenolic glycosides. Phenols serve as the active constituents in herbs, represented by compounds such as arbutin and salicin. Arbutin is found in plants such as bearberry (Arctostaphylos) and lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea). Silver birch (Betula alba) contains the glycoside salicin, whose aglycone (saligenin) is oxidized in the body to salicylic acid. Consequently, decoctions prepared from birch bark exhibit anti-inflammatory properties characteristic of salicylic acid.

A separate category comprises the so-called cardiac glycosides. These are steroid derivatives linked to a carbohydrate. Plants containing cardiac glycosides cannot be used directly because precise dosing of the active compound is impossible under such conditions. Furthermore, these plant sources often contain concomitant toxic substances; therefore, modern medicine exclusively utilizes chemically pure glycosides extracted and purified from plant raw Materials. Cardiac glycosides are found in the fresh leaves of purple and woolly foxglove, lily of the valley, pheasant's eye (Adonis vernalis), oleander, and Strophanthus seeds. Foxglove began to be cultivated for medicinal purposes in Russia in 1730.

In 1865, the Russian scientist Pelikan was the first to demonstrate the specific cardiotonic effect of Strophanthus. This plant had long been known to indigenous African populations and was traditionally used as an arrow poison.

Bitter glycosides, or bitters, are non-nitrogenous organic substances of plant origin. Examples of bitters include absinthin from wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), aucubin from common speedwell (Veronica officinalis), erythurine from centaury, humulon and lupulon from hops, helenin from elecampane, and others.

Bitter glycosides derived their name from their intensely bitter taste. They stimulate the secretion of digestive glands, stimulate appetite, and improve Digestion and nutrient assimilation. They are also beneficial in treating conditions of the liver, Gallbladder, and Bile ducts.

Bitter glycosides and non-glycosidic bitter compounds primarily act as appetite stimulants, as they irritate the taste receptors on the Tongue and reflexively stimulate the gastric mucosa. However, consuming large doses of these substances leads to the opposite effect. To achieve the desired results, preparations of bitter compounds should be taken 30 minutes before a meal.

The therapeutic value of bitters lies in their ability to stimulate the entire gastrointestinal tract, thereby eliminating issues associated with stagnation and poor digestion. Bitters are most commonly found in plants of the Asteraceae (Compositae), Gentianaceae, and Lamiaceae families. The bitter principle found in Icelandic moss (lichen) is usnic acid.

Anthraglycosides (anthracene glycosides) are anthraquinone derivatives of plant origin. They exhibit a laxative effect in cases of chronic constipation. Daily use is not recommended due to The Development of tolerance, which can lead to intoxication. The best-known plant-derived examples are buckthorn bark and common buckthorn berries.

They are used as laxatives. Unlike saline laxatives, their action begins 10–12 hours after administration. This prolonged onset is due to the gradual release of the active components. Another important characteristic of anthraglycosides is that they enhance the overall function of the digestive tract. Like other plant-derived substances, anthraglycosides act gently, promoting the gradual evacuation of fecal masses from the Large Intestine, which is why they are prescribed for chronic constipation.

Saponins are nitrogen-free glycosides that occur quite frequently in plants. They dissolve readily in water and alcohol. When shaken, aqueous solutions of saponins form a persistent, soap-like foam, which is due to their high surface activity. This foaming property gave rise to their name (from the Latin sapo – soap). When entering the bloodstream, they act negatively by lysing the walls of Blood Cells, paralyzing The Nervous system, and lowering BODY Temperature AND blood pressure. When taken orally, however, these preparations lose their harmful properties.

Preparations containing saponins are used as expectorants and Diuretics. They also possess tonic, stimulating, and general strengthening properties, and exert a beneficial effect on The Cardiovascular system. Saponins are effective in treating atherosclerosis, especially when accompanied by Hypertension. They are found in the leaves of birch, ivy, and coltsfoot, as well as in horse chestnut seeds and licorice root. It is believed that saponins bind cholesterol in the body, influence Phospholipid Metabolism, and some exhibit antifungal (antimycotic) properties. Saponins are highly toxic to fish and earthworms.

Alkaloids. Although the term "active constituents" is considered somewhat outdated—since the action of herbal preparations is complex and determined by the sum of all components—there remains a group of substances for which The Effect of the pure compound closely mirrors that of the phytopreparation. The best-known group of such substances is alkaloids and flavonoids, whose effects often manifest even in minimal amounts.

Alkaloids are something humans encounter every day. Few of us start the morning without a cup of tea or coffee. After drinking a cup of tea or coffee, we experience an elevated mood and a surge of vitality. This is explained by the stimulating effect of caffeine on the central nervous and cardiovascular systems.

Theophylline and theobromine are used clinically to treat cerebral vasospasm, coronary insufficiency, and congestion of cardiac and renal origin. All three alkaloids can also be used as diuretics.

The largest group of alkaloids consists of indole derivatives (which also include Purine Alkaloids), which are quite diverse in chemical structure, distribution, and pharmacological action. Many of them clearly illustrate the validity of the maxim attributed to the renowned medieval physician Paracelsus: "The dose makes the poison" (or rather, the same substance can be both a remedy and a poison, depending entirely on the dose).

As the most numerous group of alkaloids, indole alkaloids are widespread in the plant kingdom. They are known to occur in about 40 families that produce alkaloid-bearing species. These include tropical plants of the order Gentianales: Apocynaceae, comprising 73 alkaloid-producing species; Loganiaceae, with 40 species; Rubiaceae, with 72 species; and Malpighiaceae, with 25 species. The species of these families predominantly contain monoterpenoid alkaloids, in which various carbon rings (4-, 5-, or 6-membered) are attached to the indole ring.

The Fabaceae family is also quite rich in indole alkaloids, with over 60 species containing alkaloids of this group, though in this case, they are generally simpler in structure.

Overall, alkaloids are products of protein breakdown within the plant organism, and the majority of them are heterocyclic compounds.

All alkaloids possess alkaline properties, hence their name, derived from the Arabic al-qaly (plant ashes/alkali). Over 5,000 alkaloids are known, and all of them occur exclusively in plants. At times, these substances are highly toxic or act as narcotics. Examples include caffeine (found in tea and coffee), theobromine (in tea), and ephedrine.

Alkaloids are most frequently found in plants of the Papaveraceae, Liliaceae, Solanaceae, Ranunculaceae, Loganiaceae, and Apocynaceae families.

For the plants themselves, alkaloids serve as deterrents against insects and higher animals that might feed on them. Because alkaloids are alkaline, they react with acids to form salts, and it is in this salt form that they dissolve well in water (whereas in their free-base form, they do not). Only alkaloid salts formed with tannin are insoluble—a property utilized in cases of alkaloid poisoning.

When discussing The Significance of alkaloids for the life of the plant itself, it should be noted that their formation and accumulation represent a dynamic process. The concentration of alkaloids varies across different Phases of the vegetative period or changes when the plant is damaged.

For instance, after the bark of a cinchona tree is stripped, the newly regenerated bark contains nearly twice as much quinine. Alkaloids are distributed unevenly throughout the plant, localizing primarily in the roots and leaves. In plants of the poppy family (Papaveraceae), alkaloids accumulate in the milky latex of the green seed capsules.

The quantity of alkaloids depends on factors such as climate, altitude above sea level, soil composition, and geographical Location.

For chemical classification, The structure of the central heterocycle is of primary importance. Accordingly, scientists distinguish indole, pyridine, purine, and other alkaloids. The pharmacological effects of alkaloids are diverse.

Morphine acts as an analgesic (painkiller); atropine and papaverine act as antispasmodics; quinine has a specific effect on the malaria pathogen; caffeine and theobromine act as analeptics and diuretics while stimulating the respiratory center. A large number of alkaloids affect the nervous system; consequently, some of them, such as morphine and cocaine, are classified as potent narcotics.

The history of The Use of these substances—particularly regarding opium (from the Greek opos, meaning juice)—dates back to the ancient Sumerians (4000 BCE), who reflected its pharmacological action in the very name they gave to the poppy (the "plant of joy").

The analgesic potency of opium has long been known in Europe. Its chemical composition was discovered and investigated by the German pharmacist Friedrich Sertürner. In 1803, he isolated and described the principal opium alkaloid, naming it morphine after Morpheus, the god of dreams (or historically, after his son, though traditionally attributed to Morpheus).

Today, 28 alkaloids are known to be isolated from opium—the latex of unripe poppy capsules. The opium preparation purified of ballast substances is known as pantopon (or related purified extracts). The concentration of morphine in opium is 8–10%.

Alkaloids of the caffeine group (caffeine, theobromine, theophylline) are found in tea leaves, coffee beans, and cacao pods. Since ancient times, they have been used to prepare stimulating beverages. These alkaloids are purine derivatives and possess a strong stimulating effect, which is why they are utilized in cases of narcotic and alcohol intoxication.

Besides their excitatory effect, they have a direct impact on the functioning of The Heart, Muscles, Blood Vessels, and Kidneys.

Another alkaloid, strychnine, is the principal alkaloid found in the seeds of the nux vomica tree (Strychnos vomica). Its native habitat spans the tropical regions of Asia and Africa. However, South American plants of the genus Strychnos lack this alkaloid. It exerts an excitatory effect on all Divisions of the Central Nervous System. Symptoms of poisoning include tetanic seizures and difficulty swallowing.

Phenols are a diverse group of substances widely distributed throughout the plant kingdom. What unites these compounds is the presence of an aromatic (benzene) ring in their molecular structure. The simplest phenol is phenol itself, also known as carbolic acid, a potent disinfectant. Phenolic Compounds play a crucial role in wound healing and Cell Division. Their concentration in plants varies across a broad range; for instance, hydroxybenzoic acids and Coumarins are found in many plants, whereas certain phenols occur exclusively in specific plant species.

Tannins comprise a significant group of nitrogen-free Aromatic Compounds belonging to the polyphenols. They are also referred to as tannin substances or tannids.

Tannins have an astringent taste and are easily oxidized by enzymes upon contact with air, turning red-brown or dark brown in color (such as the darkening of potatoes or the browning of sliced apples).

Based on their chemical structure, tannins are divided into two groups: derivatives of gallic, caffeic, and protocatechuic acids, and the so-called catechins, which are closely related to anthocyanins, flavones, and flavonol derivatives.

Catechins serve as the primary structural unit for numerous tannins. These organic compounds possess a bitter taste, are readily soluble in hot water and alcohol, oxidize easily, and exhibit strong P-vitamin activity. Catechins promote the deposition of ascorbic acid in Tissues and Organs.

Plants containing tannins (such as rose hip, black currant, birch bark and leaves, guelder rose bark and fruits, bird cherry leaves and flowers, St. John's wort stems, wormwood, sage, beggarticks, raspberry berries, and rhubarb leaves) are utilized as astringent, anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrheal, bactericidal, and local hemostatic agents. They are also employed in cases of alkaloid and heavy metal poisoning.

They derived their name from their ability to tan animal hides. The tanning process relies on the interaction between tannins and Collagen, the protein found in skin. This interaction forms numerous Hydrogen Bonds between the protein and the tannin.

Tannins are abundant in the bark and wood of oak, eucalyptus, and chestnut, as well as in the rhizomes of sorrel and rhubarb, and the leaves of sumac. They are also prevalent in the bark and wood of legumes, myrtles, and rosaceous plants. Gallnuts—growths formed on leaves when damaged by gall wasps—are distinguished by a particularly high tannin content (reaching up to 50–70%).

There are also tannins that possess a pleasant astringent taste, though they lack true tanning capabilities. These are present in many fruits (quinces, apples, persimmons, grapes) and in tea leaves.

Hydrolyzable tannins impart a yellow or greenish-brown hue to leather, but the leather does not turn red as it does under the action of condensed tannins. These substances possess milder astringent properties, meaning they can penetrate much more deeply into the leather.

In medicine, tannins are used as astringent, bactericidal, radioprotective, and antitumor agents.

Tannins are most abundant in gallnuts, which are growths on the leaves of specific oak species. Tannins are also rich in the rhizomes of bistort, great burnet, and tormentil, the inflorescences of black and grey alder, oak bark, bilberry and bird cherry fruits, strawberry roots, and Chinese tea leaves. High concentrations of tannins are found in lingonberry and heather leaves, peppermint, rosemary, and the leaves and immature fruits of the walnut.

They form precipitates with heavy metal salts (bismuth, copper, tin, lead) and alkaloids, making them useful in cases of poisoning. However, they are ineffective against poisoning caused by mercury, arsenic, antimony, cocaine, nicotine, atropine, morphine, or physostigmine. Due to their astringent, anti-inflammatory, and hemostatic properties, they have a beneficial effect on Burns, scalds, oral mucosa lesions, and leukorrhea. In high concentrations, they can cause mucosal ulceration.

Flavonoids are a group of aromatic compounds. They received their name from the Latin word "flavus" (yellow) because the first flavonoids isolated from plants had a yellow color. This large class of natural compounds is not yet widely utilized; they are primarily used as components of complex multi-ingredient preparations.

The high biological activity of flavonoids is conferred by the phenolic hydroxyl and carbonyl groups that form part of these compounds.

Numerous studies have demonstrated that individual flavonoids strengthen capillary walls and act synergistically with ascorbic acid. There is also evidence supporting the radioprotective and spasmolytic Effects of Flavonoids, alongside their positive impact on the functioning of the digestive tract and liver. Recent research points to their anti-inflammatory, wound-healing, antitumor, estrogenic, bactericidal, and uterine-stimulatory properties. They also exhibit hypozotemic and diuretic characteristics. It is also worth mentioning the antioxidant role of certain flavonoids. Antioxidants are substances that prevent or significantly slow down the non-enzymatic peroxidation of organic compounds, a category that includes naphthols, phenols, and aromatic amines. In recent years, a hypothesis has emerged suggesting that we can extend human lifespan through the widespread consumption of antioxidants.

A deficiency of antioxidants in the body promotes the accumulation of free radicals and accelerates Aging. Antioxidants are essential for normal metabolic processes within living cells. Regular intake of antioxidants helps prevent the development of atherosclerosis and malignant cell transformation. Flavonoids enhance the accumulation of ascorbic acid in The Liver and Adrenal Glands while slowing down its excretion from the body. Furthermore, the positive impact of flavonoid compounds on Cardiac Activity should be noted; certain flavonoids increase the contraction amplitude of the heart, restore its function following fatigue and poisoning by chloroform or quinine, and normalize irregular heart rhythms.

Higher plants belonging to families such as Rosaceae, Fabaceae, Polygonaceae, Lamiaceae, Ranunculaceae, Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Crassulaceae, Ericaceae, Rutaceae, Fagaceae, and Liliaceae are particularly rich in flavonoids, among many others. Flavonoids are also found in lower plants (such as green algae like duckweed), spore-bearing plants (mosses, ferns), and certain insects and microorganisms. The concentration of flavonoids in plants varies, averaging 0.5–5% and occasionally reaching up to 20% in the flowers of the Japanese pagoda tree. The accumulation of these compounds is most notable in above-ground parts (flowers, fruits, and leaves). Less frequently and in smaller quantities, flavonoids accumulate in the underground parts of plants, such as licorice, Baikal skullcap, and restharrow. Flavonoids are mainly stored in the form of glycosides, and more rarely as aglycones.

The accumulation of flavonoids in plants is influenced by various factors, including the plant's age and developmental stages. For many plants, flavonoid content reaches its peak during the flowering stage and decreases during fruiting.

Environmental factors—such as light, soil composition, climatic conditions, and altitude—strongly influence flavonoid accumulation. Plants growing in southern regions are richer in these compounds. Flavonoid content also increases in high-altitude areas, as well as under high light intensity and in soils rich in micronutrients.

Among medicinal plants, various species of hawthorn, motherwort, Japanese pagoda tree, buckwheat, knotweeds, black chokeberry, immortelle, and common tansy are particularly rich in flavonoids.

Flavonoids are colorless or colored (yellow or orange) crystalline substances. Depending on the pH of The Cell sap, anthocyanins impart different colors to plants: red in an acidic medium, blue in an alkaline medium, and violet in a neutral medium, varying in intensity and shade. Flavonoid glycosides are soluble in water, whereas aglycones dissolve in organic Solvents. Under The Influence of enzymes and acids, flavonoid glycosides undergo Hydrolysis; exposure to light or alkalis easily oxidizes, isomerizes, and destroys them.

Medicinal raw materials and pure flavonoids find diverse applications. Many of them exhibit P-vitamin activity, reduce the fragility of blood capillaries (such as rutin), enhance the effects of ascorbic acid, and provide a sedative effect (e.g., Baikal skullcap). Licorice root flavonoids possess anti-inflammatory and anti-ulcer properties, while some also demonstrate hemostatic, spasmolytic, diuretic, and choleretic actions.

Terpenoids. Essential oils. These are volatile, oily substances characterized by a distinct aroma and taste. However, they leave no grease spots on paper because they evaporate readily at room temperature. Completely insoluble in water, they dissolve well in alcohol and fats. All essential oils are derivatives of Terpenes and Hydrocarbons composed exclusively of C and H atoms, featuring numerous unsaturated C - C bonds. The Chemical Structure of terpenes is based on isoprene units.

The classification includes mono-, sesqui- (3), Diterpenes (4), tri- (6), and tetra- (8). Examples include menthol as a monoterpene; sandalwood oil as a sesquiterpene; and phytol (a component of chlorophyll) as a diterpene.

Their physiological effects are diverse. Direct contact with the skin causes irritation and increases localized blood flow. When dissolved in fats, essential oils exert a localized anti-inflammatory effect.

Upon ingestion, essential oils act via the nervous system on The Stomach, stimulating gastric juice secretion and thereby influencing appetite. They also affect the Urinary System by dilating the blood vessels within the filtering apparatus of the kidneys (nephrons).

Essential oils possess pronounced disinfecting properties. Several essential oils (such as thyme, goosefoot, and wormwood) are used as anthelmintic agents. Some also boast a pleasant, perfumed scent.

Furthermore, essential oils enhance the efficacy of Antibiotics, allowing for reduced dosages. An exceptionally beneficial property of essential oils is their bioregulatory effect on all body systems. They help the organism combat infections and prevent complications by boosting The Immune System. Crucially, unlike antibiotics, essential oils rarely trigger allergic reactions.

Lavender oil. Acts as an antispasmodic, analgesic, choleretic, diuretic, diaphoretic, and anthelmintic agent. Possesses healing and antiseptic properties. Effective for burns and pain relief. Should not be used in cases of anemia. For external use only - in lotions, irrigations, and for treating wounds and burns.

Lemon oil. Tones the nervous system, clears rashes, boils, and lichen. Effective against Influenza, chickenpox, and measles. Acts as an antiseptic. A remedy for headaches, nausea, and dizziness. Helps combat cellulite, detoxifies the body, and prevents varicose Veins.

Rose oil. 80% of the world's production is derived from a single species, *Rosa damascena*. This requires harvesting 35 million rose petals. Relieves neuroses and enhances productivity. Restores hormonal balance, while rejuvenating and regenerating cellular tissue.

Eucalyptus oil. Utilized as extracts for inhalations in Upper Respiratory Tract conditions.

Peppermint oil. Acts as an antiseptic and nervous system stimulant; in large doses, it disrupts Sleep patterns. Serves as an analgesic for migraines and toothaches.

Rosemary oil. Eliminates self-doubt and insecurity. Alleviates ischemic symptoms, normalizes blood pressure, strengthens vein walls, and finds application in dermatology. A potent anti-inflammatory agent for the Respiratory system. May elevate blood pressure in hypertensive individuals.

Pinene, the primary component of turpentine, is obtained from pine oleoresin, alongside camphor (from the camphor laurel). It is used to stimulate the nervous system, respiration, and Blood Circulation.

Lemon oil. Lowers blood pressure, improves circulation, strengthens blood vessels, normalizes digestive function, AIDS in dissolving gallstones and Kidney stones, regulates metabolism, boosts Immunity, softens and smooths the skin, and strengthens Nails. It is used for viral infections (influenza, herpes, chickenpox, Viral Hepatitis, etc.), upper respiratory infections, hypertension, frequent headaches, obesity, and for removing warts and corns. Additionally, lemon oil reduces Swelling, and when combined with grapefruit, strengthens blood vessel walls. In combination with cypress, it is used for the Prevention and Treatment of musculoskeletal disorders, varicose veins, and hypertension.

Mineral elements essential for the survival of specific Living organisms are referred to as essential elements.

Out of the 110 naturally occurring elements, 71 have been detected in the human body. Essential elements for humans include Fe, Zn, Cu, Co, Mn, Mo, Se, Cr, F, Ni, Fi, Si, Sn, As, Ag, Hg, Cd, Pb, and Rb. They are incorporated into specific organic compounds (such as enzymes, hormones, vitamins, and pigments) and frequently dictate their chemical and biological activity (physiological in plants, pharmacological in humans). Through metabolic processes, mineral elements influence vital bodily Functions, including growth, development, reproduction, and hematopoiesis. Inorganic Compounds participate in The formation of various structures (bone and Muscle Tissues, cell membranes, etc.) and regulate physicochemical processes within the body, such as maintaining the Osmotic Pressure of cell sap, blood, and Lymph, as well as acid-base balance and constant pH levels.

Thus, mineral elements perform catalytic, structural, and regulatory functions. A deficiency in mineral elements leads to the disruption of these processes. Conversely, excessive intake can result in poisoning, occasionally proving fatal.

Humans obtain minerals primarily through food and water, and to some extent, via air. They are assimilated by the body mostly in ionic form. Micronutrient deficiency may stem from inadequate dietary intake (exogenous deficiency) or impaired absorption within the gastrointestinal tract, assimilation anomalies at the cellular, tissue, or organ levels, compromised biological transport, and other factors (endogenous deficiency).

To treat and prevent mineral deficiencies in humans, various dosage forms are utilized: mineral salts; mineral elements formulated as organometallic compounds (cobamide, ferroascorbate, ferroplex); and plant-derived macro- and micronutrient complexes. The latter approach offers distinct advantages: in plants, minerals are bound to organic compounds and occur in proportions optimal for the organism.

Plants serve as the primary source of mineral nutrients for the human body. A Brief Overview of the physiological Significance of the most important Minerals and Their plant sources is provided in the table.

Table 1

Phytoncides. These are bactericidal substances produced by many higher plants. Phytoncides were first investigated by the Soviet scientist B.P. Tokin. Science recognizes about a thousand PLANT SPECIES EXHIBITING phytoncidal properties. The use of phytoncides from radishes, garlic, onions, and horseradish for treating purulent wounds dates back millennia. Phytoncides stimulate the body's defense mechanisms and positively influence overall well-being.

Today, phytoncides are widely used for the treatment and prevention of influenza, adenoviral infections, sore throats, gastrointestinal disorders, Oral Cavity diseases, and more.

In our practice, phytoncides from horseradish, silver birch, black poplar, great burnet, and common horseradish have come into wide and successful use for the treatment and prevention of purulent lesions.

Plant hormones. Hormones are BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE SUBSTANCES produced by the Endocrine glands of humans and animals. They act as regulators of metabolism and body functions. Until recently, biological science held the view that plants lack hormones. However, this notion has been disproven by recent research. Plant hormones affect the human body similarly to animal-derived hormones. Choline—a biologically active hormonal compound that influences metabolic processes in plant and animal tissues—has been discovered in many plants. The biosynthesis of choline proceeds from ethanolamine and Methionine. In animal bodies, choline is used to synthesize acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that mediates nerve impulses. Choline is also a component of the enzyme that accelerates the biosynthesis of Phospholipids.

Natural sources of choline include wheat, oats, soybeans, liver, herring, and egg yolks, as well as medicinal plants such as common St. John's wort and shepherd's purse seeds. Dietary choline deficiency leads to fatty degeneration of the liver and kidneys. Choline stimulates the peristalsis of the biliary and urinary tracts, and enhances assimilation and dissimilation processes. It is used in the treatment of liver and kidney diseases. Diiodotyrosine inhibits the thyrotropic function of the anterior Pituitary Gland and reduces thyroid activity; it is used to treat mild to moderate forms of hyperthyroidism. Diiodotyrosine is a constituent of thyroxine, the hormone that regulates overall body metabolism. Small amounts of diiodotyrosine have been found in Iceland moss, dyer's greenweed, and spiny cocklebur, among others. These plants are employed to treat renal disorders characterized by an increased urinary excretion of oxalates and phosphates.

Insulin is a hormone secreted by the Pancreas. Chemically, it is a protein composed of 51 amino acid residues. Insulin regulates Carbohydrate Metabolism. Its deficiency in the body leads to a severe condition—Diabetes Mellitus—which has become widespread among both children and adults today. Insulin exerts an organic influence on muscle and adipose tissues, the cardiovascular system, the liver, and overall metabolism. Insulin-like substances used in the treatment of diabetes have been identified in many plants (such as wild chicory, dandelion, corn silk, mistletoe, walnut leaves, centaury, great burdock root, elecampane, stinging nettle leaves, and goat's rue). We widely use these plants to treat Disorders of the liver and pancreas, as well as chronic kidney diseases complicated by diabetes mellitus. Furthermore, many plants (including the leaves of common sage, field pennycress, and field mustard) contain substances that mimic the action of Sex Hormones. Histamine is a hormone-like substance and one of the biogenic amines that exhibits potent physiological activity. It exists in an inactive form within Human and Animal tissues. Histamine participates in The regulation of vascular tone and the development of Shock. It increases capillary permeability and can cause significant edema in tissues and mucous membranes. Histamine also stimulates gastric juice secretion and plays a pivotal role in the development of allergic reactions.

Allergy is defined as the hypersensitivity of the human or animal body to foreign substances. Plant species found to contain antihistamine compounds are utilized in the treatment of allergic conditions. Among the remedies used for allergic disorders are the flowers of common hawthorn, the roots of wild chicory and dandelion, the herb of common heather and common speedwell, rose hips, corn silk, flower heads of everlasting, leaves of European mistletoe and motherwort, and the rhizomes of Jacob's ladder, among others.