Pharmacognosy with the Basics of Plant Biochemistry - Kovalyov V. M. 2004

Special Part
Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides (C_nH_2n,O_n)_m are natural polymeric high-molecular-weight CARBOHYDRATES composed of Monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds to form linear or branched chains.

Structure and Classification

Polysaccharides are divided into Homopolysaccharides, which are built from a single type of sugar, and Heteropolysaccharides, which contain residues of different monosaccharides (ranging from two to six). The most common plant polysaccharides include hexoses (glucose, galactose, mannose, galacturonic acid), pentoses (arabinose, xylose), as well as deoxyhexoses (rhamnose, fructose) and amino sugars (glucosamine, galactosamine). Many polyols contain non-carbohydrate substituents, such as residues of sulfuric, phosphoric, or organic acids, most commonly acetic acid.

Class="center">Schematic classification of common polysaccharides

Polysaccharides can be bound via covalent bonds to natural polymers of other types, forming what are known as mixed polysaccharides. In addition to the carbohydrate moiety, they contain a protein or lipid component—for example, Nucleic Acids and Glycoproteins comprising polyglycoside and polypeptide chains, or lipopolysaccharides built from carbohydrate and lipid components.

The name of a polysaccharide is derived from the name of its constituent monosaccharide by replacing the suffix -ose with -an. For instance, a polysaccharide built from D-mannose residues is named D-mannan, while one composed of D-galactose and D-mannose residues is called D-galacto-D-mannan.

A systematic chemical nomenclature for polysaccharides does not yet exist. We adhere to a classification based on the Chemical Composition and Introduction/33.html">Structure of Polysaccharides. Glycans are divided into groups According to the chemical Composition and Structure of their main, unsubstituted, longest chain. If a macromolecule contains large non-carbohydrate structural units (such as protein or lipid moieties), the respective compounds are classified into a separate group (see scheme).

Traditionally, biologically active polyoses are classified according to their physical properties into Gums, mucilages, and pectic substances, without regard to their chemical structure. Furthermore, some polysaccharides have trivial names: homoglycans include Cellulose, starch, amylose, inulin, and Chitin; heteroglycans include chondroitin, pectin, and heparin. Polyuronides are polysaccharides composed of uronic acid residues, hemicelluloses are polysaccharides accompanying cellulose, and mucopolysaccharides are built from amino sugar and uronic acid residues, among others.

Occurrence and Biological Functions in Plants

Polysaccharides are constituent PARTS OF THE Tissues of All living organisms. Based on their physiological role in plant life activity, polysaccharides are divided into:

metabolites — monosaccharides and Oligosaccharides involved in biochemical processes and serving as secondary synthesis derivatives;

reserve substances — groups of polysaccharides that perform a storage function (starch, inulin, certain galactomannans, pectic substances, and occasionally mono- and oligosaccharides);

structural, or skeletal substances — cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin, which serve as supporting material for The Cell walls of higher plants; the cell walls of Fungi are constructed from chitin.

The BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF polysaccharides are diverse:

energy reserve of Cells — starch, Glycogen, laminarin, inulin, and certain plant mucilages;

protective — capsular polysaccharides in microorganisms, hyaluronic acid and heparin in animal tissues, and gums in plants;

Water balance maintenance — achieved through anionic compounds (mucilages, pectin, algal polysaccharides) as well as the selective ionic permeability of cells;

ensuring specific intercellular interactions and immunological reactions: complex polysaccharides form cell surfaces and membranes; Glycolipids are crucial components of nerve cell membranes and erythrocyte envelopes; cell surface carbohydrates frequently mediate cell-virus interactions.

Physicochemical Properties

Polysaccharides are amorphous, rarely crystalline, high-molecular-weight compounds with molecular weights ranging from 2,000 to several millions. As a rule, natural polysaccharides are mixtures of polymer homologs. They readily form intermolecular bonds. Because each polysaccharide molecule is highly polar due to A large number of free hydroxyl groups, they are insoluble in alcohol and non-polar Solvents. The solubility of polysaccharides in water varies: some linear homoglycans (xylans, Mannans, cellulose, chitin) are insoluble in water due to strong Intermolecular Forces, whereas complex and branched polysaccharides either dissolve in water (glycogen, dextrans) or form gels (Pectins, Agar-agar, alginic acids, etc.). Polysaccharide solubility is influenced by inorganic salts and the pH of the medium; they are generally more soluble in alkaline media than in acidic or neutral ones.

Some polysaccharides form highly ordered supramolecular structures that hinder the Hydration of individual molecules; such polysaccharides (chitin, cellulose) are insoluble in water.

Polysaccharide solutions rotate the plane of polarization, a property utilized to elucidate their structure; some reduce Fehling's reagent (dextrins). Treatment with acids causes polysaccharide depolymerization. Under METABOLISM/18.html">The Influence of dilute or concentrated acids, polysaccharides undergo partial or complete Cleavage of glycosidic bonds, yielding mono- or oligosaccharides. Glycans associate in solutions and may occasionally form structured systems and precipitate out.

The primary functional group of polysaccharides is the hydroxyl group. It is capable of undergoing Esterification and oxidation. The carboxyl groups of uronic acids can be esterified or reduced, while the amino groups of amino sugars can be acylated. Polysaccharides are capable of forming complexes with metals, non-metals, and low-molecular-weight Organic compounds.

Methods of Isolation and Investigation

The high-molecular-weight structure and complex architecture of polysaccharides account for their insufficient understanding to date. Polysaccharide research involves three main stages: isolation, purification, and direct analysis.

Isolation is typically carried out using cold or hot water. However, the resulting extract often becomes contaminated with Proteins, mineral salts, and water-soluble pigments.

Purification of the extract involves methods such as dialysis, fractional precipitation with alcohol or quaternary ammonium bases, ultrafiltration, and enzymolysis. A standard method for polysaccharide research was developed by Jermyn and Isherwood. Dried plant material is extracted with boiling water for 12 hours. The resulting extract is sometimes referred to as pectins, regardless of their actual structure. This complex is then precipitated with alcohol and isolated by centrifugation. Plant material residues are chlorinated under mild conditions, which leads to the complete removal of Lignin and the cleavage of any bonds between cellulose and Cell wall polysaccharides known as hemicelluloses. Afterward, hemicelluloses are extracted with a 4 M alkali solution at room Temperature for several hours. Insoluble cellulose is subsequently removed by centrifugation.

Investigating The structure of polysaccharides involves determining their molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, The Nature of the glycosidic linkages between monosaccharide residues, The sequence of their arrangement in the chain, and the branching pattern of the molecule. Both chemical and physicochemical Analytical Methods are employed.

An essential method for studying polysaccharides is their partial acid or Enzymatic Hydrolysis before and after methylation. The qualitative composition of MONOSACCHARIDES AND THEIR methylated derivatives is determined using paper, thin-layer, or Gas-Liquid Chromatography, as well as Electrophoresis following complete acid hydrolysis.

Other techniques applied to determine polysaccharide structure include Gel filtration, Ion-exchange chromatography, and the periodate method. Molecular weight is determined by ultracentrifugation, gel filtration, and light scattering, among other methods. Modern approaches for structural elucidation include Infrared Spectroscopy, NMR spectroscopy, The Use of Lectins, and immunochemical methods.

The polysaccharide content in plant raw Materials is determined gravimetrically. The total amount of reducing monosaccharides following the hydrolysis of glycans is measured spectrophotometrically (utilized in preparations such as Mucaltin, Plantaglucid, Laminarid, etc.).

Biological Activity and Applications

In pharmaceutical practice, polysaccharides are utilized both as standalone medications and as excipients in drug formulation. Polysaccharide-based medicines exhibit emollient, wound-healing, anti-ulcer, enveloping, expectorant, analgesic, and laxative effects, among others. When introduced into the body, exogenous polysaccharides reduce inflammation, accelerate reparative processes, modulate immune responses, and inhibit tumor growth. The protective effect of polysaccharides on the digestive Organs—especially sulfated glycans—is attributed to their ability to bind with proteins, forming substances with novel physicochemical properties that can limit the proteolytic activity of Pepsin. Due to their interaction with heavy Metal Ions, these carbohydrates are also used to treat and prevent lead poisoning and toxicities caused by radioactive isotopes.

Polysaccharide complexes containing proteins and biogenic elements with immunomodulatory activity have been isolated from the Vegetative organs of plants belonging to the Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Apocynaceae, and Rutaceae families. Efforts are currently underway to develop antitumor agents based on polysaccharides derived from dandelion (*Taraxacum officinale*), poppy seeds, and black currant leaves. Experimental studies have also demonstrated the hypoglycemic effects of glycans extracted from aloe leaves, corn stalks, and gromwell roots. Corn polysaccharides exhibit hypocholesterolemic effects. As auxiliary raw materials containing biologically active polysaccharides, it has been proposed to use press cakes (pomace), such as those from sea buckthorn berries after oil extraction, or from everlasting flowers (*Helichrysum arenarium*) during The production of the drug Flamin.

Compared to synthetic polymers, polysaccharides offer several distinct advantages in application:

plant glycans undergo microbial and enzymatic degradation and are completely eliminated from the Organism;

for the most part, they are non-toxic, and their metabolites cause no harm to the body;

the majority of polysaccharides used in medicine are water-soluble; if insoluble, they can easily be made soluble or capable of Swelling in water to form gels through simple chemical transformations;

polysaccharides exhibit a vast diversity of structures and forms (fibers, films, granules, powders, gels, or viscous solutions), making them suitable for the formulation of various medicinal products: tablets, pills, coating agents for tablets and capsules, ointment bases, suspension and emulsion stabilizers, as well as solvents for eye drops and injections.

Gums are primarily used as emulsifiers, in solutions as demulcents, and in enemas to reduce irritation during inflammatory and ulcerative processes in The Stomach and intestines. Gums decrease the local irritating effect of certain drugs, slow down the absorption of various medicinal substances, and possess many other valuable properties—such as increased viscosity, adhesiveness, and gelling capacity—making them useful as binders, thickeners, and stabilizers in the food industry. Mucilages are used in medicine as demulcents and emollients.

Pectic substances and hemicelluloses are present in virtually every plant, which is why their contribution to the overall therapeutic efficacy of remedies made from cranberry berries, rose hips, viburnum, chamomile flowers, linden flowers, marigolds, licorice roots, beggar-ticks herb, and others must be taken into account.

In its pure form, pectin is used as an emulsifier, stabilizer, ointment base, and as an independent medicinal agent. Pectin exhibits hemostatic properties, lowers Blood Cholesterol levels, influences Bile acid metabolism, demonstrates anti-anaphylactic activity, reduces antibiotic toxicity, and prolongs their therapeutic effect. Pectin-containing preparations stimulate wound healing. For instance, the complex of pectic substances from German chamomile (the preparation Kamilazid) has an anti-ulcer effect, which is attributed to its action on gastric secretory function and tissue trophic processes. The polysaccharides of aloe and kalanchoe, which are classified as pectic substances, exert a positive effect on the healing of wounds and Burns.

Pectin is utilized to prolong the action of active pharmaceutical ingredients and as an additive that reduces side effects. For example, aspirin formulated in a complex with pectin exhibits reduced irritant properties. There is also an antituberculosis drug containing pectin that provides a depot effect. In Ukraine, quercetin and pectin granules with a broad spectrum of pharmacological activity have been developed.

As components of medicines and food, pectins are capable of binding radionuclides, toxic chemical substances, and salts of heavy and alkaline-earth metals, converting them into water-soluble compounds. There is a growing number of Pharmaceuticals, food products, and dietary supplements that incorporate plant fibers. Previously, these were classified merely as "ballast substances." The term "dietary fiber" encompasses pectic substances, Storage Polysaccharides similar to inulin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, and gums. Additionally, non-carbohydrate components such as lignin are also included in this category.

The consumption of plant fibers produces several favorable pharmacological effects: appetite suppression and enhanced satiety, reduced energy intake; normalization of bowel motility; inhibition of the growth of putrefactive microbes; normalization of intestinal microflora; reduction of fat Absorption in the Small Intestine; lowering of blood cholesterol levels; and a positive effect on vitamin and Lipid Metabolism within the enterohepatic Circulation system. Consequently, this helps reduce the risk of chronic constipation, hemorrhoids, appendicitis, colon Cancer, gallstone disease, obesity, ischemic Heart disease, Hypertension, and Diabetes Mellitus.

In medical Nutrition, plant fibers are recommended as enterosorbents at a dose of 25 g daily for the physiological detoxification of the body. The detoxifying properties regarding heavy and alkaline-earth metal salts and toxic chemicals manifest when pectins are consumed at a prophylactic dose of 2 g daily.

The main medicinal products derived from herbal medicinal raw materials containing polysaccharides are listed in Appendix Table 1.    

Homopolysaccharides

Homopolysaccharides are polysaccharides composed of identical monosaccharide units. Depending on their carbohydrate component, they are subdivided into glucans (amylose, amylopectin, cellulose, glycogen, dextrans, chitin, etc.), Fructans (inulin, phlein, triticin, etc.), galactans (agar-agar, carrageenan), and others.

Glucans

Cellulose (from *cellula* — cell), or dietary fiber (С₆Н₁₀О₅)_n, is a structural component of Plant Cell Walls. Its content varies depending on the plant species. Cotton seeds consist of 98% cellulose, the wood of deciduous and coniferous trees contains 40-50%, and wheat grain contains 1.9%.

Cellulose is a linear polysaccharide composed of ß-D-glucopyranose residues linked by 1 → 4 glycosidic bonds. The repeating unit in the cellulose chain is a cellobiose residue.

Cellulose forms a rigid helix with a pitch equal to 2 ∙ 3 elemental units. Hydroxyl groups participate in The formation of intra- and intermolecular Hydrogen Bonds. Each cellulose macromolecule (micelle) consists of approximately 60 glucose molecules. Micelles are oriented to form network structures. The basis of the supramolecular structure of cellulose is elementary highly ordered microfibrils associated into aggregates known as cellulose fiber. On average, a single cellulose microfibril accounts for several hundred macromolecular units.

Cellulose is a white substance. It is insoluble in most known solvents, though it dissolves with partial degradation in concentrated mineral acid solutions and certain salts, such as beryllium perchlorate. Complete acid hydrolysis of cellulose yields exclusively glucose, whereas partial hydrolysis yields oligosaccharides such as cellobiose, cellotriose, and cellotetraose, which serve as intermediate degradation products.

Acid hydrolysis of cotton cellulose yields microcrystalline cellulose (with a crystallinity degree of 70-85%). It consists of individual macromolecule aggregates with a specific ratio of length to thickness. This type of cellulose is used for juice clarification, accelerating the extraction of Essential Oils, as an excipient in drug manufacturing (tablets, emulsions), as a catalyst, and as a stabilizer, among other applications.

Raw materials for cellulose production include wood, grasses, and agricultural waste. The crushed biomass is heated with chemical Reagents (acidic, alkaline, or combined), which convert lignin and hemicelluloses into a solution or partially degrade them. The insoluble cellulose is then separated, bleached, and utilized in the manufacture of paper, cardboard, and synthetic fibers, as well as for chemical synthesis in the pharmaceutical and food industries.

Cellulose has a positive effect on intestinal peristalsis and normalizes Digestion. It is not digested in the human gastrointestinal tract and possesses a high adsorption capacity.

Various species of cotton are rich in cellulose (*Gossypium*, fam. Malvaceae). The genus comprises 30 wild species growing in tropical regions and 5 cultivated species. Among the cultivated species, the most widespread is upland cotton — *Gossypium hirsutum L.*, which is cultivated on all continents. The highest-quality fiber is produced by extra-long-staple cotton, or sea-island cotton — *Gossypium barbadense L.* It is cultivated primarily in Egypt and the southern regions of Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, accounting for about 10% of global raw cotton production.

Raw cotton consists of 30-40% fiber, with the remainder being seeds. For medical use, raw cotton is cleaned, degreased, bleached, washed, and combed using specialized machinery. Medical-grade cotton wool is classified by its degree of degreasing and purity into absorbent ophthalmic, absorbent surgical, and compress cotton. It contains 98% cellulose and serves as a classic surgical and dressing material. Fluid absorption is facilitated not only by the STRUCTURE OF THE microfibrils but also by the capillarity of the cellulose fibers themselves. Cotton wool and bandages are sometimes impregnated with antiseptic solutions. Collodion and various cellulose derivatives (such as methylcellulose and carboxymethylcellulose) are produced from cotton wool and used as excipients in the formulation of certain dosage forms.

Cottonseed yields fatty oil, gossypol, and its derivatives. Gossypol is a toxic sesquiterpene dimer, which can also be isolated from the roots. A 3% gossypol liniment is used as an antiviral agent for lichen and psoriasis.

Dextrins are low-molecular-weight glucans formed via the partial breakdown of starch or glycogen under the influence of Enzymes (amylases, phosphorylases), acids, or heating up to 180-200 °С. They have a variable composition. Thermolysis and Glycolysis lead to random depolymerization of polysaccharides, producing a wide range of compounds. Endoenzymes (α-amylase) predominantly cleave α-1 → 4 bonds in starch and glycogen, yielding maltose, maltotriose, and α-dextrin. These are relatively low-molecular-weight linear or branched oligosaccharides containing one or two α-1 → 6 bonds between glucose residues alongside α-1 → 4 bonds. The amylase from *Bacillus macerans* converts starch into cyclic oligosaccharides containing 6, 7, and 8 D-glucopyranose residues linked by α-1 → 4 bonds, which are known as α-, β-, and γ-cyclodextrins, respectively, or Schardinger dextrins.

Dextrin is a white or yellowish powder with a sweetish taste, soluble in cold water, sparingly soluble in dilute alcohol, and insoluble in absolute alcohol. Its aqueous solutions rotate the plane of polarized light to the right, which explains its name (*dexter* — right). Dextrins dissolve in alkalis upon heating, acquiring a yellow color in the process. Amylodextrins, which are products of the Initial Stages of starch hydrolysis, turn blue with iodine, whereas medium-molecular-weight dextrins turn red. Further breakdown of dextrin yields Disaccharides, primarily maltose, and eventually glucose. Dextrins are formed in animal and plant organisms during the enzymatic degradation of reserve carbohydrates.

Polysaccharides similar to dextrins are synthesized by Bacteria *Leuconostoc mesenteroides* from sucrose and are called dextrans. These glucose polymers, which have a Molecular Weight of 10⁷-10⁸, are composed of α-D-glucopyranose residues with 1 → 6 linkages in the linear regions and 1 → 3 or 1 → 4 linkages in the branched regions. Partially hydrolyzed dextrans with a molecular weight of 40,000-80,000 are used as plasma volume expanders (blood substitutes), while cross-linked dextrans (Sephadexes) are used as sorbents for gel filtration.

Starch is a mixture of the glucans amylose and amylopectin.

The Pharmacopoeia permits the use of several grades of starch:

potato starch — *Amylum Solani*, obtained from potato tubers — *Solanum tuberosum L.*, fam. nightshade — Solanaceae;

wheat starch — *Amylum Tritici*, from summer or soft wheat — *Triticum vulgare L.*, fam. grasses — Gramineae (Poaceae);

corn starch — *Amylum Maydis*, from kernels of maize — *Zea mays L.*, fam. grasses — Gramineae;

rice starch — *Amylum Oryzae*, from kernels of cultivated rice — *Oryza sativa L.*, fam. grasses — Gramineae.

Additionally, starch is obtained from sweet potatoes, sago palms, and other plants. Starch is produced through Photosynthesis in the leaves of green plants, where it is converted into soluble compounds by the action of amylases and phosphorylases and transported to other organs (seeds, fruits, tubers, stems), accumulating as starch granules that are specific in shape and size for each plant species. The highest starch content is found in rice grains (62-86%), wheat (57-75%), corn (62-70%), and potato tubers (14-24%). Global starch production is approximately 20 million tons per year.

Starch production. Potato starch is obtained mechanically. Tubers are washed and crushed using mechanical graters. The resulting pulp is mixed with water and strained through special sieves several times. Starch passes through the openings in the form of "starch milk," while the fiber is retained. The starch suspension is left to settle in vats; due to its high specific gravity (1.5-1.6 g/cm³), the starch settles to the bottom, and the dirty water is drained. For better purification, the starch is resuspended in water, allowed to settle, centrifuged, and dried in dryers to a moisture content of about 20%.

Cereal grains contain more starch, but its extraction is complicated by the high content of protein substances (gluten). Cereal starch is obtained via Fermentation, which breaks down the gluten while leaving the starch intact.

Soluble starch is produced by the partial Hydrolysis of Starch using a 7% Hydrochloric acid solution or by heating with glycerin up to 90 °С.

Properties of starch. Starch is a white or yellowish, odorless, tasteless, hygroscopic powder with a crunchy texture, consisting of simple and compound granules. They feature a distinct Morphology that allows for the identification of starch under microscopic examination. Starch is insoluble in alcohol, chloroform, and cold water (below 55 °C); in hot water (55-70 °C), it forms a viscous colloidal solution and gelatinizes at temperatures specific to each type of starch. It is hydrolyzed by acid solutions to dextrin and further to D-glucose, while the enzyme amylase breaks down starch into maltose and isomaltose.

Soluble starch dissolves in boiling water to form a clear solution that does not thicken to a glue-like consistency upon cooling, and it slowly reduces Fehling's solution. It yields a blue coloration with iodine solution and turns red-violet when heated with a-naphthol and concentrated sulfuric acid.

Structure of starch. Starch consists of two polysaccharides: amylose and amylopectin.

Amylose is a mixture of unbranched polysaccharides in which 100 to several thousand D-glucopyranose residues are linked together by 1 → 4 bonds into chains of varying length. Under the action of enzymes, it is cleaved into maltose, starting from the non-reducing end. In space, amylase forms a helix, with each turn consisting of 6 glucose residues. Its molecular weight ranges from 50,000 to 160,000. It readily dissolves in water; with an iodine solution, it develops a characteristic blue color, the intensity of which depends on the molecular weight of the amylose. Upon swelling of starch in warm water, it forms the soluble fraction of the starch paste.

For research purposes, amylose is isolated from starch using hot water or precipitated as complexes with butanol or thymol.

Amylopectin is the main constituent of starch. It is a mixture of polysaccharides in which glucose residues are linked into branched chains. The molecular weight (162,1)_n is approximately 1,000,000. It sometimes contains up to 50,000 glucose residues linked by 1 → 4 bonds, with 1 → 6 bonds at the branch points. The molecule includes a small amount of phosphoric acid (about 0.2%) linked to the glucose molecules via an ester bond. With an iodine solution, it turns red-violet; it is practically insoluble in cold water, whereas in hot water, it forms the gelatinous fraction of the paste.

Structure of amylopectin

Starch granules in most plants contain 15 to 25% amylose, with the remainder being amylopectin. This ratio depends on the plant species and is under Genetic control.

Applications. In pharmacy, starch is used as an emollient and protective agent: externally in dusting powders and powders combined with zinc oxide or talc; internally and in enemas as a mucilage to shield sensitive nerve endings from irritating substances and to slow down drug absorption.

Starch and soluble starch are utilized in tablet manufacturing as a binder, dusting agent, and filler, as well as in surgery for immobilizing bandages. Starch also serves as an indicator in iodometric analysis.

Fructans

Fructans are polysaccharides composed of D-fructose residues. They accumulate in the tissues of monocots and dicots, green Algae, and bacteria. Being products of sucrose phosphorylation, each molecule contains a single D-G-glucose residue and, due to the type of linkage, lacks reducing properties. Only primary OH groups participate in the formation of glycosidic bonds, and all fructose residues are in the furanose form with a ß-configuration of the glycosidic center. Due to the presence of three primary hydroxyls in sucrose, the formation of three different trisaccharides is possible, which serve as the source of Three types of fructans.

The sequential addition of ß-D-fructofuranose residues to 1-kestose via a 2 → 1 bond yields inulin. If fructose attaches to the fructose residue of 6-kestose via a 2 → 6 bond, phlein (in plants) and levan (in bacteria) are formed. The third type of polysaccharide is less common.

In addition to linear fructans, branched fructans are frequently found in plants, in which side chains characteristic of phlein are attached to the main inulin-type chain, or side chains of the inulin type are attached to the main phlein-type chain.

Inulin. The degree of polymerization of inulin does not exceed 100 (typically 30-45); its molecular weight is 5,000-6,000. Inulin is sometimes accompanied by so-called inulides, which contain only 10-12 fructose residues and are therefore highly soluble in water. Fructans are sparingly soluble in cold water and readily soluble in hot water. The macromolecule is easily hydrolyzed due to the furanose form of fructose. Complete acid hydrolysis of the polysaccharide yields 94-97% fructose and 3-6% glucose. Inulin and inulides do not react with iodine.

In plant cells, fructans accumulate in vacuoles, serving as a reserve nutrient, osmoregulator, and antifreeze. The fructan content sometimes reaches 30% of the dry weight of the leaves, and their reserves in specialized organs can exceed 60%.

Inulin accumulates predominantly in plants of the Asteraceae and Alliaceae families. Jerusalem artichoke tubers (Helianthus tuberosus) and dahlia (Dahlia pinnata) are rich in inulin. It is also found in the roots of chicory (Cichorium intybus), dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), elecampane (Inula helenium), echinacea (Echinacea purpurea), and others. Its concentration varies depending on the season and climatic conditions, with peak levels observed in autumn and winter.

Fructans are used for the industrial production of D-fructose. Inulin is employed in therapeutic and preventive nutrition to normalize Carbohydrate Metabolism, as well as an immunomodulator and enterosorbent.

Daily consumption of inulin significantly increases the population of bifidobacteria in the gut while reducing the levels of pathogenic and enteropathogenic bacteria. It is believed that the immunomodulatory properties of inulin are closely linked to its bifidogenic activity. Inulin enhances glycolysis and regulates lipid metabolism, making it particularly beneficial for patients with diabetes mellitus. Various dietary Supplement series combining inulin with berry juices, vegetable juices, and medicinal plant extracts have been developed.