Fundamentals of Biochemistry - A. A. Anisimov 1986

Introduction

Biological chemistry (biochemistry) is the science that studies the chemical COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES of substances in living organisms, as well as the transformations of these substances during vital activity. The totality of these transformations, reflecting the Organism's constant interaction with the external environment, is referred to as METABOLISM.

The concepts of "chemical composition" and "metabolic transformations," along with the very name of the science—"biological chemistry"—raise a fundamental question: is biochemistry a branch of biology or of chemistry? Friedrich Engels developed and presented in his Dialectics of Nature a scientifically and methodologically sound Classification of sciences based on the forms of motion of matter that each science studies. Life is a qualitatively distinct, higher form of the motion of matter in nature. Metabolism constitutes the foundation and essence of this special form of motion. "Life is the mode of existence of protein bodies, the essential element of which is the constant interchange with the external nature surrounding them."¹ Therefore, the science that investigates The Essence of the biological form of the motion of matter—metabolism—must be classified as a biological science.

Defining biochemistry as a science simultaneously characterizes its standing and significance among other biological sciences. By exploring the essence of life and its most vital process—metabolism—biochemistry undoubtedly ranks among the paramount biological sciences. It is no coincidence that even in one of our country's foundational documents—the Morphology/3.html">MAIN DIRECTIONS OF Economic and Social Development of the USSR for 1986–1990 and for the Period up to 2000—emphasis is placed on the necessity within the natural sciences "to develop physicochemical biology and the scientific foundations for obtaining physiologically active substances for medicine and agricultural production..."²

¹ Marx, K., & Engels, F. Works (2nd ed.), vol. 20, p. 616.

² Ryzhkov, N. I. On the Main Directions of Economic and Social Development of the USSR for 1986–1990 and for the Period up to 2000. Moscow, 1986.

The Significance of biochemistry for human society stems from the fact that it serves as one of the theoretical foundations for medicine, agriculture, biotechnology, Introduction/32.html">Genetic Engineering, forestry, and a range of industrial sectors. Many human pathological conditions originate from disruptions in specific biochemical processes. For instance, more than a hundred diseases are known to be caused by impaired enzyme systems or the absence of certain Enzymes due to hereditary defects. Furthermore, specific diseases are characterized by alterations in the Chemical Structure of high-molecular-weight compounds. Such "molecular defects" have been described, notably, for Hemoglobin and Polysaccharides. Without a profound understanding of the Molecular Basis of pathology, neither Diagnosis, Treatment, nor disease Prevention is possible. The achievements of biochemistry also determine the strategy for developing novel pharmaceutical drugs. In this regard, the widespread use of enzymes in treating certain diseases is of great interest.

Biochemical processes and parameters underlie virtually every food industry technology: baking, cheesemaking, winemaking, brewing, tea production, fats and oils Processing, dairy, meat and fish processing, fruit and vegetable processing, and starch and molasses production. Biochemical knowledge is equally essential for the successful operation of leather manufacturing, fur processing, and natural silk treatment. Enzymatic preparations are widely employed in the textile industry for cotton processing. Biochemical manufacturing sectors—such as The production of Vitamins, Antibiotics, and other biologically active compounds, organic acids, and feed protein—are expanding continuously.

Only through a deep understanding of the metabolic patterns of agricultural plants and animals is it possible to achieve high crop yields with superior quality in plant cultivation and increased productivity in animal husbandry. In this regard, the application of various chemical agents in agriculture is exceptionally effective: herbicides, fungicides, feed vitamins, Proteins and antibiotics, defoliants and desiccants (which induce leaf fall and pre-harvest drying of plants), insecticides (which destroy pest insects), repellents (which deter pests), and so on.

All of the above highlights the immense importance of biochemistry for human society and explains the vast and ever-growing interest in this science worldwide.

Biochemistry is conventionally divided into static and dynamic biochemistry. The task of static biochemistry is to study the Chemical Composition and properties of substances in living organisms. Dynamic biochemistry investigates the transformations of substances during life processes. Although largely conventional, this division is useful for teaching and methodological purposes when presenting biochemical theory. In actual biochemical research, however, it is impossible to deeply study and understand the transformations of a substance within an organism without knowing its Structure and properties; conversely, any characterization of The properties of biochemical compounds remains incomplete without describing their transformations within the organism. Depending on the research subjects, biochemistry is further subdivided into Human and Animal biochemistry, plant biochemistry, and microbial biochemistry. Specific branches of biochemistry are also distinguished by their research focus.

Technical biochemistry develops the biochemical foundations for industrial sectors that process raw Materials and supplies of biological origin (baking, cheesemaking, winemaking, etc.).

Medical biochemistry studies biochemical processes in The Human Body under both normal and pathological conditions.

Evolutionary biochemistry compares the composition and Metabolic pathways of substances and energy across various taxonomic groups of living organisms from an evolutionary perspective.

Quantum biochemistry investigates the properties, Functions, and transformation pathways of various substances in living organisms in relation to their electronic characteristics, as determined through quantum-mechanical calculations.

Enzymology studies the structure, properties, and MECHANISM OF ACTION of enzymes—biological catalysts.

Among all sciences, biochemistry is most closely related to physiology. This connection is rooted in the very nature and essence of biological processes. At the ROOT of any functional physiological disorder lies a system of altered biochemical reactions. It is impossible to fully and correctly understand The Nature of any physiological process without knowing its biochemistry, just as biochemical reactions cannot be studied in isolation from their physiological significance. It is hardly surprising, therefore, that until the second half of the 19th century, biochemistry was not an independent science but a branch of physiology. The state of an organism's physiological functions—and above all, The Nervous system—exerts a decisive influence on the course of biochemical processes.

The close link between biochemistry and physiology is also reflected in the work of many prominent researchers. The great Russian physiologist Academician I. P. Pavlov was simultaneously a pioneer in several vital areas of biochemistry, particularly in enzymology: The conversion of zymogens (proenzymes) into active enzymes, the reversibility of enzyme action, and the structure and properties of digestive enzymes.

Gradually, as biological knowledge accumulated, biochemistry became a leading branch of physiology and subsequently established itself as an independent science. Today, driven by the rapid development of specific subfields, There is a growing trend to spin off some of them into independent scientific disciplines (such as enzymology).

Biochemistry is also closely intertwined with organic chemistry. In their research, biochemists isolate individual substances from living organisms, purify them, verify their homogeneity, determine their Composition and Structure, and study their properties before synthesizing them when necessary. These steps mirror the work of an organic chemist. Yet while the chemist's work essentially ends there, for the biochemist this is where the most crucial and fascinating part begins—investigating the transformations of these compounds within the overall metabolic network of the living organism and clarifying their role in vital activity. The connection between biochemistry and organic chemistry is likewise reflected in the scholarly work of numerous scientists. For instance, the prominent Soviet organic chemist Academician N. D. Zelinsky is renowned for his research in the Biochemistry of Proteins.

The ties between biochemistry and physical chemistry expand year by year. The rates of biochemical reactions, their dependence on Temperature and the active reaction of the medium, and their connection to osmotic phenomena are of paramount importance for life processes. All these issues fall within the purview of both biochemistry and physical chemistry. In recent times, physicochemical and physical Methods have been integrated into biochemical research with particular intensity: Chromatography, Electrophoresis, X-Ray Diffraction Analysis, spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic Resonance (EPR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), the labeled atom method, and others. This has given rise to a new field of scientific knowledge—physicochemical biology—which is successfully developing in our country.

About thirty years ago, one could hardly speak of any serious interaction between biochemistry and mathematics. Today, however, this has become an undeniable fact. And not only because the results of biochemical research can only be trusted when they are statistically processed and their degree of reliability is known. Far more significant is THE CONTRIBUTION OF mathematics to biochemistry through the widespread adoption of mathematical modeling, the analysis of biochemical processes in terms of feedforward and feedback loops, regulation and control mechanisms, and self-regulation (i.e., the integration of biochemistry with cybernetics), which has led to the extensive use of computers in modern biochemical research.

Although biochemistry formed as an independent science about a hundred years ago, humans utilized biochemical processes in antiquity, naturally without understanding their theoretical essence. In tracing The history of biochemical knowledge and the evolution of biochemistry as a science, it is feasible to distinguish four periods.

Period I—from ancient times to the Renaissance (15th century). This was a period of the practical utilization of biochemical processes without knowledge of their theoretical foundations, alongside early and often highly rudimentary biochemical investigations.

In prehistoric times, humans already mastered the technology of industries based on biochemical processes, such as baking, cheesemaking, winemaking, and leather tanning. The necessity of treating diseases stimulated reflection on metabolic transformations within the body and the causes of the medicinal properties of plants. Using plants for food, as well as for making Dyes, textiles, and tanning agents, likewise prompted attempts to understand the Properties of Individual plant-derived substances.

The talented 10th-century scholar Avicenna (Ibn Sina), in his famous book The Canon of Medicine—which was republished numerous times well into the present day—detailed many medicinal substances, devoting an entire section of the work to them.

11th-century birchbark manuscripts excavated in Novgorod indicate that brewing, winemaking, and baking technologies were already well-developed in Kievan Rus. Even then, our ancestors mastered numerous intricate recipes for plant-based paints and inks. The renowned masterpiece of Slavic culture, the handwritten Ostromir Gospel (11th century), still astonishes viewers with the richness and vibrancy of its colors.

The second period in The Development of biochemistry, which still existed as a branch of physiology, was marked by an accelerated accumulation of biochemical knowledge. This era began with the Renaissance and lasted until the second half of the 19th century, when biochemistry emerged as an independent science.

The Renaissance was marked by a partial easing of church dogma in science and the liberation of natural science from the shackles of medieval religious obscurantism. Leonardo da Vinci—a genius of that era, master of numerous artistic masterpieces, architect, engineer, and anatomist—was also fascinated by processes driven by biochemical reactions. Through insightful experiments, he deduced an exceptionally important Conclusion for his time: a living organism can exist only in an atmosphere capable of sustaining a flame.

The 16th and 17th centuries witnessed the birth and rise of iatrochemistry (from the Greek iatros, meaning physician). Proponents of this school argued that human vital processes and the causes of disease could only be understood through chemistry, and that treating many illnesses required primarily chemical remedies. One of the founders of iatrochemistry, the German physician and pharmacologist Paracelsus (1492–1541), wrote that the true goal of alchemy was not to make gold, but to forge the tools of medicine.

Marked by the brilliant works of Mikhail Lomonosov, the 18th century was a time of vigorous and comprehensive scientific development in Russia. Lomonosov's Discovery of the law of conservation of mass delivered a crushing blow to idealism in natural science. This great discovery laid the groundwork for a materialist understanding of nature and its phenomena, ushering in a new era in chemistry, biology, and other sciences—the era of precise quantitative measurement. Lomonosov is widely recognized as the founder of chemical science in Russia, and its establishment naturally spurred advancements in plant chemistry. He articulated a remarkable insight in his Introduction to True Physical Chemistry (1752): “...although animal and plant Organs are extremely delicate, they consist of smaller particles, specifically inorganic ones, because chemical operations destroy their organized structure.” Even then, this brilliant materialist interpretation of living organisms left no room for any mystical “vital force” or vitalism. In his treatise On Aerial Phenomena (1753), Lomonosov became the first in science to introduce pioneering ideas about the “aerial Nutrition” of plants, i.e., Photosynthesis. His writings repeatedly emphasized The Importance of chemistry for medicine, and he provided descriptions of various biochemical compounds, such as fats, Essential Oils, and resins.

Building upon Lomonosov's law of conservation of mass and the experimental data accumulated by the late 18th century, the French scientist Antoine Lavoisier quantitatively investigated and explained The Mechanism of Respiration, highlighting The Role of oxygen in this process. In the 1830s and 1840s, the German chemist Justus Liebig successfully advanced quantitative chemical analysis methods and applied them to The Study of biological systems.

A powerful catalyst for the development of organic chemistry and biochemistry was The Theory of chemical structure (1861) formulated by the great Russian chemist Alexander Butlerov. At the time, certain scientists (such as the prominent organic chemist Charles Wurtz) believed that deciphering The structure of organic substances was fundamentally impossible and that existing formulas were merely conventional symbols. Such skepticism toward the potential of science and human reason—agnosticism—is, as we know, a form of blatant idealism.

In his theory, Butlerov maintained that atoms and molecules exist in specific, real relationships—both quantitative and spatial—which are precisely expressed by chemical formulas. He also demonstrated that The chemical properties of substances are dictated by their molecular structure. Revolutionary for its time, Butlerov's materialist theory charted the course for the development of organic chemistry and biochemistry for decades to come.

Butlerov made another invaluable contribution to biochemistry: he was the first to synthesize sugar in a laboratory. Vitalists argued that Organic compounds could only be generated within living organisms under The Influence of inscrutable vital forces. Butlerov's synthesis of sugar and the German chemist Friedrich Wöhler's synthesis of urea thoroughly refuted these pseudoscientific dogmas.

In the 1850s, the renowned French physiologist Claude Bernard isolated Glycogen from The Liver and demonstrated that it converts into glucose, which then enters the bloodstream. In 1868, Friedrich Miescher discovered DNA in the laboratory of the German physiologist and biochemist Felix Hoppe-Seyler. However, the true significance of this discovery—and of the molecule itself—was only recognized nearly a century later.

The third period in the history of biochemistry, beginning In the second half of the 19th century, was marked by biochemistry branching off from physiology to become an independent science. This transition was driven by a dramatic surge in the depth and intensity of biochemical research, the sheer volume of data generated, and its expanding Practical Applications in industry, medicine, and agriculture. This era coincides with the pioneering work of Alexander Danilevsky (1838–1923), one of the founding fathers of Russian biochemistry. Investigating Cell/13.html">Protein Structure, he formulated a series of propositions that later served as the foundation for the polypeptide theory of protein architecture. Danilevsky was the first to propose the reversibility of enzymatic action, subsequently achieving the enzymatic synthesis of protein-like substances (plasteins). He also developed an original method for separating and purifying enzymes through Adsorption and Elution, techniques that remain widely used today. Danilevsky headed the first Department of Biochemistry in Russia at Kazan University and established the first Russian school of biochemists.

Mikhail Nencki (1847–1901) made monumental contributions to the development of domestic biochemistry. In 1891, he established Russia's first biochemical laboratory at the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg. He conducted a series of groundbreaking studies: working alongside colleagues L. P. Marchlewski and S. V. Salaskin, he elucidated the primary stages of urea Biosynthesis, carried out the first detailed investigation into the structure of hemoglobin, and evolutionary compared it with the structure of chlorophyll. Nencki's scientific interests were remarkably broad; alongside the achievements mentioned above, he also pioneered the synthesis of salol, investigated Protein metabolism, and explored various aspects of the Etiology of tuberculosis.

The discovery of vitamins by N. I. Lunin (1880) and Viruses by D. I. Ivanovsky (1892) dates back to the end of the last century.

At the turn of the 20th century, the prominent German organic chemist and biochemist E. Fischer (1852–1919) conducted his landmark research, which marked an entire epoch in the development of biochemistry. He formulated the fundamental principles of the polypeptide theory of proteins, which had been initiated by the studies of A. Ya. Danilevsky. Fischer determined the structure, proposed formulas, and investigated the properties of nearly all Amino Acids that make up proteins. He also carried out a detailed and extensive Study of the structure and enzymatic transformations of CARBOHYDRATES, especially Monosaccharides.

To this same period belong the studies of the great Russian plant physiologist K. A. Timiryazev (1843–1920), whose works address many biochemical aspects of photosynthesis and mineral nutrition in plants. As early as 1868, at the 1st Congress of Russian Naturalists, the 25-year-old Timiryazev presented a report on the conversion of inorganic substances into organic compounds by the green leaves of plants under the influence of solar energy. This was merely the beginning of his groundbreaking work on photosynthesis, which subsequently gained worldwide recognition.

At the end of the past century, another great Russian scientist, A. N. Bach—who later became the founder of the Soviet school of biochemistry—began his research. From the very outset of his scientific career, Bach focused on one of the central problems of biochemistry: respiration. He was dissatisfied with the idea of a complete analogy between respiration and combustion proposed by A. Lavoisier. Based on profound research, Bach formulated the peroxide theory, which explained the mechanism by which atmospheric oxygen participates in respiration reactions. This theory has not lost its significance today; the elucidation of the role of oxygenases, peroxidases, and catalase in Biological Oxidation increasingly attracts the attention of biochemists.

Bach made significant contributions to enzymology, laying the foundations of the doctrine concerning The Physiological Role of enzymes. His research fostered the development of technical biochemistry in our country. Bach exemplifies the ideal scientist and citizen, continually combining extensive scientific endeavors with active public involvement (and, prior to 1917, revolutionary activities). Even in gymnasium, he read K. Marx, and during his student years, he was exiled for five years for participating in "disturbances," later becoming an active member of Narodnaya Volya. Following the October Revolution,

A. N. Bach organized a series of major biochemical institutions: the Biochemical Institute of the People's Commissariat of Health, the Institute of Biochemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and others. The Soviet school of biochemistry established by Academician Bach, along with his students and associates, has earned universal recognition and still holds a worthy place in world science. Among Bach's immediate collaborators, A. I. Oparin—the creator of the widely known and accepted theory of THE ORIGIN OF life—deserves special mention.

A number of remarkable Russian scientists, who began their research activities prior to the October Revolution, demonstrated their talents during the Soviet era:

V. I. Palladin showed that respiration is a system of enzymatic processes, and established the Role of Water-derived oxygen and dehydrogenation reactions—the removal of hydrogen—during respiration;

S. P. Kostychev investigated the chemistry of Alcoholic Fermentation and the anaerobic phase of respiration, discovering commonalities between them;

D. N. Pryanishnikov laid the foundations of The Doctrine of plant Nitrogen metabolism, uncovered the role of ammonia and asparagine in this process, and established the foundations of Soviet agrochemistry.

In the first third of the 20th century, Academician V. S. Gulevich (Moscow State University) discovered and investigated Carnosine and Anserine, which are nitrogenous extractive substances of Muscles. Gulevich is one of the founders of comparative evolutionary biochemistry in our country, having established a major biochemical school in the Soviet Union.

The early 20th century was marked by a series of fundamental studies in the field of chemistry abroad as well. In 1905, A. Harden and W. Young isolated the first coenzyme of alcoholic fermentation, "zymase," nowadays referred to as NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide). That same year, F. Knoop discovered and investigated the $\beta$-Oxidation of Fatty acids. The 1920s and 1930s saw the brilliant works of the German biochemist O. Warburg on the isolation and study of respiratory enzymes (cytochrome oxidase, flavin dehydrogenases, etc.), the isolation of pyridine NUCLEOTIDES, and the investigation of their Structure and function. Concurrently, J. Sumner and J. Northrop (USA) isolated enzymes in the form of protein crystals for the first time, thereby revolutionizing enzymology. In 1933, H. Krebs studied the Ornithine cycle of urea synthesis in detail, and 1937 marked his discovery of the tricarballylic acid cycle (Citric Acid Cycle), which serves as the biochemical basis for the aerobic breakdown of carbohydrates.

In 1933, D. Keilin (England) isolated cytochrome $c$ and reconstituted The process of Electron transport along the Respiratory Chain in Heart Muscle preparations.

In the 1930s and 1940s, two remarkable discoveries were made in the Soviet Union that profoundly influenced the subsequent development of all biochemistry. In 1931, V. A. Engelhardt demonstrated that phosphorylation is coupled with oxidative processes during respiration, while in 1942, together with M. N. Lyubimova, he discovered the ATPase activity of Myosin and other contractile proteins.

In 1938, A. E. Braunstein and M. G. Kretzman first described Transamination reactions, which constitute one of the central hubs of nitrogen metabolism in All living organisms.

The 1940s and especially the 1950s were characterized by the intensive application of physical, physicochemical, and mathematical methods in biochemical research, alongside the active and successful investigation of fundamental life processes (primarily Protein Biosynthesis) at the Molecular and supramolecular levels. This was undoubtedly a qualitative leap in the development of biochemistry. Therefore, it is appropriate to consider the 1950s—marked by the publication of J. Watson and F. Crick's paper on the DNA double helix structure, which initiated a new scientific field, molecular biology—simultaneously as the beginning of a qualitatively new period in the history of biochemistry: the Fourth Period.

Here is a brief chronology of major biochemical discoveries during this period.

1953 — J. Watson and F. Crick proposed The Double Helix model for the structure of DNA.

1953 — F. Sanger first deciphered the Amino Acid Sequence of the protein Insulin, which consists of 51 amino acid residues.

1955–1960 — A. N. Belozersky and his coworkers investigated the Nucleotide Composition of DNA across a vast number of animal, plant, and bacterial species, characterizing the taxonomic and Evolutionary Significance of the quantitative ratios of individual nitrogenous bases in DNA.

1959, 1960 — A. S. Spirin and P. Doty established the secondary and Tertiary Structure of ribosomal RNA.

1961 — M. Nirenberg deciphered the first "letter" of the Protein Synthesis code—the DNA triplet corresponding to phenylalanine. Later, S. Ochoa and H. Khorana decoded all the letters of this code.

1965–1967 — R. Holley and, independently, A. A. Bayev determined The nucleotide sequence of Transfer RNAs.

1966 — P. Mitchell formulated the chemiosmotic theory of Oxidative Phosphorylation coupling.

1969 — R. Merrifield chemically synthesized the enzyme Ribonuclease.

1970 — H. Khorana synthesized a Gene (for Transfer RNA), and in 1976, he integrated it into the DNA of a mutant bacteriophage strain $\lambda$ defective in that gene, after which the bacteriophage began to reproduce normally.

1971 — In a joint study by two laboratories headed by Yu. A. Ovchinnikov and A. E. Braunstein, the Primary Structure of aspartate aminotransferase, a protein consisting of 412 amino acids, was established.

1977 — F. Sanger and coworkers completely deciphered the primary structure of a DNA molecule (phage $\phi$X174) for the first time.

Various areas of biochemical research continue to be actively developed in our country today. At Moscow State University, research on the biochemistry of respiration has been fruitfully conducted for many years under the guidance of Academician S. E. Severin. S. E. Severin served as President of the All-Union Biochemical Society for a long time, and his research and organizational efforts did much to strengthen and develop the Soviet biochemical school. Major priority research in Bioenergetics is being carried out at Moscow State University by V. P. Skulachev. Great successes have been achieved by the team at the Institute of Biochemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences, particularly in enzymology (I. V. Berezin), biological Fixation of Atmospheric nitrogen and plant nitrogen metabolism, technical biochemistry (V. L. Kretovich), and the biochemistry and biophysics of photosynthesis (A. A. Krasnovsky). A series of fascinating discoveries regarding Protein Biosynthesis and structure were made at the Protein Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences (A. S. Spirin), while investigations into the STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS of Nucleic Acids and certain enzymological problems were conducted at the Institute of Molecular Biology of the USSR Academy of Sciences (V. A. Engelhardt, A. E. Braunstein, A. A. Bayev, G. P. Georgiev). Research on the structure and properties of membranes by Yu. A. Ovchinnikov (Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences) has gained wide recognition both in our country and abroad. The leading scientific center for plant functional biochemistry in the Soviet Union is the K. A. Timiryazev Institute of Plant PHYSIOLOGY OF THE USSR Academy of Sciences, headed by A. L. Kursanov. In addition to the aforementioned institutions, intensive and successful biochemical research is conducted at the Institute of Medical and biological Chemistry of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, the Institute of Biochemistry and PHYSIOLOGY OF MICROORGANISMS, the Institute of Photosynthesis, the Institute of Biophysics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, as well as a number of VASKhNIL institutes. Institutes of biochemistry also exist within the academies of sciences of most union republics. The CPSU Central Committee and the government of our country pay great attention and provide substantial support to the development of biochemical research, as evidenced by recent special resolutions on measures to accelerate the development of molecular biology (1974), physicochemical biology and biotechnology (1981), and the further development of biology and biotechnology (1985). These resolutions fostered profound changes in Soviet biological science, primarily developing such branches as molecular biology, bioorganic chemistry, Molecular Genetics, and immunology.

On a number of issues concerning the physicochemical direction in biology, Soviet scientists have secured leading positions in world science. Building upon the achievements of the physicochemical approach in biology, a promising scientific and technological sector—biotechnology—is taking shape in the USSR. A significant indicator of the active growth of biochemical research in our country is the sharp increase in the number of published papers. Prior to the October Socialist Revolution, there were no periodicals dedicated to biochemistry in Russia. Currently, our country publishes journals such as *Biokhimiya* (Biochemistry), *Uspekhi biologicheskoy khimii* (Advances in Biological Chemistry, an annual), the Abstract journal *Biologicheskaya khimiya* (Biological Chemistry), *Ukrainian Biochemical Journal*, *Applied Biochemistry and Microbiology*, *Evolutionary Biochemistry and Physiology*, *Bioorganic Chemistry*, *Molecular Biology*, *Problems of Medical Chemistry*, and *Physiology and Biochemistry of Cultivated Plants* (Kiev). Besides these specialized publications, A large number of biochemical papers are published in *Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR* (Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences), *Fiziologiya rasteniy* (Plant Physiology), and many other periodicals.

Soviet biochemists are regular and active participants in all international biochemical congresses and conferences of the Federation of European Biochemical Societies (FEBS), and serve as members of international biochemical organizations (the regular 16th FEBS Conference was held in Moscow in 1984).

The problems currently facing biochemical science are critically important for humanity, fascinating, and compelling. One of them is the study of human metabolism aimed at promoting health, developing radical methods to combat the "Diseases of the century"—Cancer and cardiovascular disorders—and finding ways to increase human lifespan. Biochemical research forms the basis for solving this problem, because the onset of cancerous tumors results from alterations in the structure of nuclear DNA and disruptions in the Biochemical Mechanisms Regulating Cell Division. The cause of many cardiovascular diseases lies in disturbed Lipid Metabolism. Any disease is associated with Metabolic Disorders, and treatment very often consists of normalizing metabolism through pharmacological agents. Today, it is impossible to imagine diagnosing diseases without prior biochemical analyses. Immunity—the body's ability to resist disease—is based on a complex system of biochemical processes. Immunochemistry is one of the most pressing fields of knowledge today, lying at the intersection of Biochemistry and Medicine.

The study of the BIOCHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS OF the Central Nervous System and the Brain is also of extreme interest. Academician I. P. Pavlov pointed out as early as 1949 that a true theory of all nervous phenomena can be provided only by studying the physicochemical processes taking place in Nervous Tissue.

Substances produced in the brain (most often Peptides) that govern states of excitation, inhibition, and human behavioral patterns have already been discovered. Solving many problems concerning human psychology, behavior, emotions, and memory is possible only through biochemical research.

The rapid population growth on our planet makes the food problem highly urgent. Biochemists are now well aware of the reactions through which sugars and starch are synthesized in the green leaves of plants from atmospheric CO₂ and H₂O. In our years, it has become entirely realistic to replicate these processes in bioreactors, which will replace thousands of hectares of cultivated farmland, remain independent of weather conditions, and require significantly less manual labor. A special place within the food problem is held by the issue of adequate dietary protein content. Certain Bacteria are capable of intensively assimilating atmospheric nitrogen, converting it into Amino Acids and subsequently into proteins. Reproducing the biochemical reactions that occur in these bacteria under industrial conditions is an extremely enticing idea, the realization of which is entirely feasible.

The pressing directions for the development of biochemistry in our country are outlined in the 1981 resolution of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers "On the Further Development of Physicochemical Biology and Biotechnology and the Utilization of Their Achievements in Medicine, Agriculture, and Industry."

The Central Committee of the CPSU and the USSR Council of Ministers consider one of the primary tasks of Soviet science at the present stage to be the further expansion and deepening of fundamental research into the physicochemical foundations of living phenomena, ensuring on this basis the prevention and effective treatment of human diseases, the production of Pharmaceuticals, food and feedstuffs using biotechnological methods, and the DEVELOPMENT OF NEW, highly efficient breeding methods.

All the aforementioned tasks of biochemistry will be addressed on The basis of the priority development of fundamental theoretical research into the structure and function of biochemical compounds, the development of their Analytical Methods, and the elucidation of their biosynthetic and metabolic pathways.

The Food Program adopted by the May 1982 Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee sets major tasks for the biochemists of the Soviet Union. Research into ways of regulating the metabolism of agricultural plants and animals in order to increase their productivity can lead to the discovery and utilization of vast reserves.