BIOCHEMISTRY - V. V. Emelyanov - 2016

BIOCHEMISTRY EXAM QUESTIONS

Static Biochemistry: Structure AND Functions of Biomolecules

1. Chemical composition of living systems. Classification of chemical elements based on their Abundance in living systems. Biological Significance of Water and Inorganic Compounds.

2. Classification of Organic compounds based on carbon Skeleton structure and the presence of functional groups. METABOLISM/2.html">THE CONCEPT OF heterocyclic compounds, major representatives, and their biological significance.

3. Carboxylic acids: classification, structure, stereoisomerism, and biological significance of major representatives. Interconversion of saturated, unsaturated, hydroxy, and oxo acids. Qualitative tests for lactic and pyruvic acids.

4. Amino Acids: definition, general structural framework, stereoisomerism. Classification of amino acids by side-chain Structure and properties, qualitative tests for various representatives.

5. Amino acids: polycondensation reaction, STRUCTURE OF THE peptide bond. Qualitative test for the peptide bond. Primary Cell/13.html">Protein Structure and its biological significance.

6. Secondary and Tertiary Protein Structure: types of bonds stabilizing the structure, Structural Features of globular and Fibrous Proteins. Structural proteins of living systems (Collagen, keratin, Fibroin).

7. Simple and Conjugated Proteins, Major Groups of conjugated proteins. Quaternary Protein Structure: spatial Organization, types of bonds stabilizing the structure. Functional Characteristics of Oligomeric Proteins (using Hemoglobin as an example).

8. Acid-base properties of amino acids, Peptides, and proteins; the Concept of the isoelectric point and its biological significance.

9. Plasma Proteins: origin, major fractions, and biological significance.

10. Monosaccharides: classification by chemical structure, structure, and biological significance of major representatives. Types of monosaccharide isomerism, interconversion of isomers (using glucose, ribose, or fructose as Examples), and biological significance.

11. Key Chemical properties of monosaccharides (oxidation, reduction, glycoside and phosphate ester formation), biological significance. Qualitative tests for glucose and fructose.

12. Oligosaccharides: definition, classification by the number of monomer units and reducing capacity. Structure and biological significance of major Disaccharides.

13. Polysaccharides: classification, structure, and biological significance of major representatives. Qualitative test for starch.

14. Lipids: definition and classification. Structure and Biological Role of non-saponifiable lipids. Brief Overview of Fat-soluble Vitamins.

15. Fatty acids: definition, structure, physicochemical properties, and biological significance of major representatives. Qualitative test for Unsaturated fatty acids.

16. Triglycerides: structure, relationship between structure and physicochemical properties, biological significance. Key Chemical Reactions of triglycerides: hydrogenation, saponification, halogenation.

17. Phospholipids: classification, structure, relationship between structure and physicochemical properties. The Role of phospholipids in The formation of biological membranes and Blood Lipoproteins.

18. Blood lipoproteins: General structural plan, composition and functions of major classes.

19. Structure and functions of biological membranes: the role of lipid, protein, and carbohydrate components.

20. Mechanisms of Substance transport across biological membranes. The role of membranes in maintaining ionic Homeostasis of the CELL AND EXTRACELLULAR environment.

21. Nitrogenous bases, nucleosides, and NUCLEOTIDES: classification, general structural plan, biological significance. Nucleotide derivatives as BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE SUBSTANCES.

22. RNA: types, structure, spatial conformation, types of chemical bonds within the molecule, cellular localization, and biological significance.

23. DNA: structure, spatial configuration, types of chemical bonds within the molecule, cellular localization, and biological significance.

Dynamic Biochemistry: Metabolism. Enzymology and Biological Oxidation

24. Metabolism: definition, components, and properties. Metabolic compartmentation at THE CELLULAR LEVEL: metabolic functions of various cellular Organelles.

25. Integration and REGULATION OF METABOLISM. Levels of Metabolic Regulation: intracellular, intercellular, and central. The interplay of the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems in metabolic regulation.

26. Hormones: definition, properties, and chemical classification. A brief overview of Steroid Hormones.

27. Hormones: membrane and intracellular modes of action on target Cells, with a comparative overview. The Mechanism of membrane-mediated action illustrated by the adenylate cyclase system.

28. Enzymes: definition and a comparative analysis of enzymes versus non-biological catalysts.

29. Enzymes: definition and structure. Coenzymes and Cofactors: their chemical nature and functions.

30. Vitamins and Vitamin-like compounds: definition, classification, and biological significance. The coenzyme function of vitamins, exemplified by Enzymes of the Krebs cycle.

31. Mechanisms of Enzymatic Catalysis: Fisher's lock-and-key theory, Koshland's induced-fit theory, and the intermediate compound theory. Thermodynamic principles of enzymatic catalysis.

32. International Classification and Nomenclature of Enzymes: construction principles, classes, and numerical codes. Characteristics and naming conventions for each enzyme Class (with examples from the Krebs cycle, Glycolysis, Gluconeogenesis, fatty acid β-oxidation, and Amino acid metabolism).

33. Enzymes: dependence of reaction rate on Temperature, pH, Enzyme Concentration, and Substrate Concentration. The Michaelis-Menten and Lineweaver-Burk equations.

34. Modes of ENZYME ACTIVITY REGULATION. A comparative overview of competitive and Allosteric Regulation MECHANISMS, including examples and biological significance.

35. Modes of enzyme activity regulation. Regulation via covalent modification, induction, and repression, including examples and biological significance.

36. Blood enzymes: origin, biological functions, and diagnostic value in laboratory medicine. The Application of Enzymes as analytical Reagents.

37. Stages of ENERGY EXTRACTION FROM nutrients: preparatory phase, Intermediary Metabolism, and mitochondrial phase. High-energy cellular compounds. Creatine phosphate: synthesis, breakdown, and biological significance.

38. ATP: structure, pathways of synthesis, and utilization within The Cell. A comparative analysis of oxidative and substrate-level phosphorylation. Reactions of substrate-level phosphorylation in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.

39. The Krebs cycle: cellular localization, reactions, enzymes, and biological significance.

40. The Krebs cycle: regulation, energy yield, and biological significance. INTERCONNECTION OF THE Krebs cycle with carbohydrate, lipid, and Protein metabolism.

41. Coenzymes of biological oxidation (NAD⁺, NADP⁺, FAD, ascorbic and lipoic acids, ubiquinone, heme): structural overview and biological significance. Energy efficiency of The oxidation of NAD⁺- and FAD-dependent substrates in the Electron Transport Chain.

42. Enzyme systems of tissue Respiration and Oxidative Phosphorylation: structural overview, mechanisms under coupled and uncoupled conditions, and biological significance. Peter Mitchell's chemiosmotic theory.

43. Xenobiotics: concept and biological role. Stages of lipophilic xenobiotic metabolism: oxidation and conjugation reactions. Ethanol: pathway and Energy balance of oxidation to CO₂ and H₂O.

44. Microsomal oxidation: principles and biological significance of monooxygenase and dioxygenase reactions. The role of monooxygenase reactions in xenobiotic metabolism (using benzene as an example).

45. Pathways of oxygen utilization in BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION REACTIONS. Free-radical pathways of oxygen utilization in the cell: principles and biological significance.

46. Cellular antioxidant defense: enzymatic and non-enzymatic components, the role of vitamins and Trace Elements, and biological significance.

Dynamic Biochemistry: Carbohydrate, Lipid, Protein, and NUCLEIC ACID METABOLISM. Biochemical Research in Medicine

47. Carbohydrate Metabolism in the cell: glycolysis, intracellular localization, reactions, enzymes, biological significance.

48. Carbohydrate metabolism in the cell: aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis, regulation, energy yield, biological significance. Fermentation: definition, similarities to and differences from glycolysis.

49. Carbohydrate metabolism in the cell: glucose-6-phosphate metabolic pathway. Overview of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway, Glycogen Synthesis and Breakdown, biological significance.

50. Carbohydrate metabolism in the cell: Pyruvate metabolic pathway. Lactic acid metabolism in various Tissues. Energy yield of Complete oxidation of lactic acid to CO₂ and H₂O. Cori cycle, biological significance.

51. Carbohydrate metabolism in the cell: gluconeogenesis, reactions, substrates, enzymes, regulation, biological significance.

52. The role of hormones and The Nervous system in the REGULATION OF CARBOHYDRATE Metabolism. Biochemical blood parameters indicative of carbohydrate metabolic status.

53. Lipid Metabolism IN the cell: fatty acid β-oxidation, stages, intracellular localization, reactions, enzymes, biological significance.

54. Lipid metabolism in the cell: fatty acid β-oxidation, energy yield (using linolenic acid oxidation as an example). Comparative characteristics of Introduction/36.html">CARBOHYDRATES and lipids as cellular Energy Sources.

55. Lipid metabolism in the cell: acetyl-CoA metabolic pathway, overview of fatty acid synthesis, comparison between synthesis and β-oxidation, biological significance. Essential Fatty Acids: structure and biological significance.

56. Lipid metabolism in the cell: overview of triglyceride synthesis and breakdown, conditions, biological significance. Energy yield of glycerol oxidation to CO₂ and H₂O.

57. Lipid metabolism in the cell: acetyl-CoA metabolic pathway, overview of Cholesterol synthesis, sources and utilization pathways in the body, biological significance.

58. Lipid metabolism in the cell: acetyl-CoA metabolic pathway, structure of Ketone Bodies, overview of their synthesis and breakdown, biological significance. Energy yield of β-hydroxybutyric acid oxidation to CO₂ and H₂O. Qualitative test for ketone bodies.

59. The role of hormones and the nervous system in the Regulation of Lipid Metabolism. Biochemical blood parameters indicative of lipid metabolic status.

60. Amino acid metabolism in the cell: decarboxylation reactions, enzymes, biological significance. Utilization of amino acids for the synthesis of biologically active substances (using adrenaline or acetylcholine as examples).

61. Amino acid metabolism in the cell: Transamination reactions, enzymes, biological significance. Fate of the carbon skeleton of amino acids. Ketogenic and Glucogenic amino acids.

62. Amino acid metabolism in the cell: concept of essential, non-essential, semi-essential, and conditionally Essential Amino Acids. Synthesis reactions of non-essential amino acids (using GLU, GLN, ASP, ALA as examples). Interconnection of amino acid metabolism with carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.

63. Amino acid metabolism in the cell: Direct and Indirect deamination reactions, enzymes, biological significance. Ammonia Production, its toxicity, and detoxification pathways.

64. Amino acid metabolism in the cell: Urea Cycle, localization in the body, reactions, enzymes, biological significance, connection with deamination reactions and the Krebs cycle.

65. Protein Biosynthesis: brief description of main stages. Post-translational modification and protein folding.

66. Proteolysis: types, enzymes, biological significance. Features of protein Catabolism in Lysosomes and proteasomes. Utilization Pathways of the cellular amino acid pool.

67. Nucleic acid metabolism: biological significance of nucleotides, overview of nucleotide synthesis and breakdown, reactions leading to the formation of End products of Metabolism.

68. The role of hormones in the Regulation of Protein metabolism. Nitrogen balance. Sources of complete dietary protein. End products of Nitrogen metabolism in humans.

69. Biochemical blood parameters indicative of protein metabolic status. Blood Plasma non-protein nitrogen (residual nitrogen) and its components.

70. Blood as an object of biochemical research. Differences between blood plasma and serum. Mineral components of blood, distribution patterns between plasma and cells, biological role.