Human Anatomy (with Fundamentals of Dynamic and Sports Morphology) - Ivanitsky, M. F. 2008

Introduction to Anatomy
Preliminary Remarks

Human anatomy is the science that studies the external form and Internal Structure of the living Organism. It examines The STRUCTURE OF THE human body in relation to the Functions of its Organs, the origins and age-related development of humans, as well as their living and working conditions. This applies both to the human organism as a whole and to its individual systems and organs.

Since The Study of The Human Body in anatomy is always approached through the lens of the functions performed by the body and its individual organs, the term "Functional Anatomy" best reflects The Scope of modern human anatomy. Anatomical data only acquire true value and relevance for specialists in physical education when examined in connection with the vital activity and function of the organism.

The word "anatomy" comes from the Greek *anatemno*, meaning "to dissect." Thus, the name of this discipline derives from one of its primary Research Methods. For a long time, dissection was the sole method used to study The structure of the human body, and it remains widely used today. Alongside dissection, however, modern anatomy employs many other research methods. Consequently, the term "anatomy" can now be interpreted in a broader sense: dissection is performed not only with a scalpel or beams (such as X-rays), but also with the mind. This is well illustrated by the saying: "While cutting with a scalpel, dissect with your mind" (P. I. Dyakonov).

The objectives of Anatomy and Its connections with other sciences. The study of anatomy aims to address numerous tasks, notably fostering a materialist worldview, preparing students for other biomedical sciences (physiology, medicine), and instilling the knowledge, skills, and competencies essential for professional practice. As a subject of scientific research, anatomy investigates the Structural Features of the organism across various levels of living Organization—from the whole body down to the regularities governing cellular structure and its subcomponents.

Anatomy intersects with fields addressed by other sciences, primarily physiology, genetics, and anthropology. The foundational materialist dialectic principle regarding The Unity of Structure and function is explored through the investigation of structures (by anatomists) and functions (by physiologists). Genetics studies human heredity and uncovers the laws of GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT driven by both genetic factors and environmental influences. Although anthropology focuses on The Diversity of manifestations of both bodily structures and functions, structural features have traditionally remained its primary source of information regarding both modern and fossil humans. The borderland discipline between anatomy and anthropology that investigates the forms of human body structural Variability and their determining factors is known as anatomical anthropology.

METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF anatomy. Human anatomy belongs to the biological sciences—that is, sciences studying life and the vital processes of organisms (*bios* meaning life). As a biological science, it draws upon the universal laws of development and life inherent to All living organisms to explain observed phenomena, construct hypotheses and theories, and synthesize empirical data.

Among all living creatures, humans are the most complex. Their fundamental distinction lies not in physical structural features, but in the causes behind them: the social character of life, labor, and articulate speech. Biological phenomena such as natural Selection and the Struggle for Existence played an increasingly subordinate role in Human Evolution compared to emerging social production relations. Living conditions, the physical nature of humans, and the structural and Functional Characteristics of the body all depend on working conditions and production relations. Because working conditions are governed by social laws, the latter hold primary significance for humans.

Naturally, the Social and biological factors that shape the Evolution of the physical and material Properties of the human body are inextricably linked, while the laws of social life do not supplant biological laws. Fundamental vital processes (METABOLISM, growth, reproduction, locomotion, and The ability to perceive and respond to stimuli) occur in every living creature and are equally present in the human body, making it possible to apply biological laws when studying the human body.

K. A. Timiryazev wrote that "each organic form is the result of the impact not only of contemporary conditions, but of all the innumerable conditions that acted upon the countless series of forms from which it descended." This circumstance allows us to view every form "as a process—as something not simply existing from eternity, but continuously forming."¹ Therefore, in studying human anatomy to understand bodily form and structure, researchers utilize facts concerning phylogenesis—the evolutionary Development of the species (*phylon* meaning race or tribe, *genesis* meaning origin)—as well as ontogenesis—The Development of the individual from conception to death (*ontos* meaning being, *genesis* meaning origin). To achieve this understanding, human anatomy incorporates data from related sciences, primarily comparative anatomy and Embryology (*embryo* meaning germ, *logos* meaning science). By studying animal anatomy through comparative methods and examining the development of the human embryo, one can retrace the developmental pathway of a specific organ and the organism as a whole.

The human organism functions as a unified whole in which all individual systems and organs develop and operate in mutual interdependence and conditionality. A clear example of the complex interplay within the living human body is The connection between The Musculoskeletal System and The Nervous system. The musculoskeletal system transmits stimuli to the Central Nervous System, while the central nervous system regulates musculoskeletal activity. Nevertheless, in any interaction, a leading link must be identified. In the human organism, as in other living creatures, this leading link is the nervous system. On the one hand, it connects the organism to its external environment; on the other hand, maintaining anatomical and functional connections with all systems, organs, tissues, and Cells of the body, it ensures the organism's existence as a cohesive whole.

The foundation of a "thinking" anatomy is the causal approach—elucidating the causes and manifestations of organismal variability in relation to function and other factors.

Factors of organismal variability. When systematizing all factors determining human physical nature and examining them sequentially, priority must be given to everything related to prenatal development. This group of factors encompasses inherited traits and congenital features passed down to the individual.

¹ K. A. Timiryazev, *Collected Works*, vol. VIII, 1939, p. 69.

Another key factor is age. All Organs of the human body undergo age-related changes, some to a greater extent than others. Certain organs develop faster than others; some age earlier while others age later. Age-related changes are highly complex and extend far beyond generalized, schematic descriptions of the human body.

The next factor is biological sex. Sexual characteristics manifest to varying degrees in the structure of all organs, but they are most pronounced in the organs of the lesser pelvis.

Finally, factors of organismal variability include the social living conditions of the individual, along with their work and domestic environments. Pathological processes, when present, also influence the Anatomical Features and functions of specific organs. Consequently, individual variations in organ structure among people are as infinitely diverse as the combinations of the aforementioned primary factors.

For specialists in physical culture and sports, of particular interest are the bodily changes, morphological features, and associated functional adaptations that occur under The Influence of Physical Exercise and athletic training.

Research methods. Anatomy employs a wide arsenal of research methods. Structural details are studied using post-mortem specimens: cadavers, isolated organs, or tissue blocks obtained intra vitam via biopsies (Blood, Bone Marrow, Muscle samples, etc.). Work on cadavers involves layer-by-layer dissection of tissues followed by the isolation (preparation) of structural components under investigation. To facilitate this work and prevent putrefaction, specimens are fixed in special solutions, most commonly a weak formalin solution. Blood and Lymphatic vessels, as well as glandular ducts, are clearly visualized by filling them with solidifying masses (the injection method). Surrounding soft tissues can be removed by treating the specimen with acid, leaving a cast of the structures filled with the injection mass (the corrosion method).

Studying the anatomy of a living person requires relatively non-invasive research methods, primarily X-rays and ultrasound (radiography and ultrasonic echo-Location). These methods differentiate organs possessing varying radiopacity or acoustic impedance relative to these physical agents. Radiological research in anatomy began in 1895–1896 when anatomists P. F. Lesgaft and V. N. Tonkov, alongside physicist P. N. Lebedev (independently of one another), utilized X-rays to visualize the BONES OF THE hand. Today, alongside standard radiography and fluoroscopy, techniques include cinefluorography, microradiography, electroradiography, color radiography, and computed tomography (CT). Magnetic Resonance imaging (MRI) holds immense promise for studying soft tissues.

Among the most widespread methods are anthropometry and anthroposcopy, which make it possible to determine general (total) and specific (partial) body dimensions (longitudinal, transverse, girths) as well as skinfold thicknesses, and to evaluate qualitative traits on a point scale when they cannot be measured metrically (e.g., secondary sex characteristics such as Hair development, breast shape and size in girls, or laryngeal prominence in boys). Modern microscopic anatomy and Histology employ selective staining of individual structures, Lipids, Enzymes, etc., on tissue sections several microns thick, followed by examination under microscopes that magnify objects hundreds or thousands of times. Alongside light Cell/15.html">Microscopy, Electron microscopy enables magnifications of tens and hundreds of thousands of times, allowing researchers to study the Fine Structure of cells and their Organelles.

Classification of morphological (anatomical) sciences. All biological sciences are divided into two primary groups—sciences of bodily form and sciences of bodily function, commonly referred to as morphological and physiological sciences (*morphe* meaning form, *physis* meaning nature). According to this classification, anatomy belongs to the morphological sciences.

Morphological sciences are traditionally subdivided into disciplines that study organismal structure with the naked eye (macroscopic Morphology: *macros* meaning large, *scopeo* meaning to view) and those that study structure using a Microscope (microscopic morphology: *micros* meaning small). Anatomy is predominantly a macroscopic morphology. Microscopic anatomy emerged as an independent science following the invention and application of the microscope. Microscopic morphology includes histology—the science of tissues (*histos* meaning tissue)—and Cytology—the science of cells (*kytos* meaning cell). In addition, There is a branch of morphology that explores the borderland zone of visibility known as macromicroscopic anatomy, which owes its origin and development in our country to the works of V. P. Vorobyov (1876–1937).

The foundational science from which these branches diverged is human anatomy, known as Normal Anatomy. It studies the healthy, living human body in its natural, normal state. In this regard, it differs from pathological anatomy, which focuses on structural alterations in the organism caused by disease (*pathos* meaning suffering). Normal anatomy also has various branches, some of which are considered independent sciences, most notably plastic anatomy and Topographical Anatomy.

Plastic anatomy (*plastike* meaning plastic art or modeling) studies the external form of the human body and the internal structural features that determine it. This science has Practical Applications in the visual arts (painting, graphics, and sculpture). The first professor of plastic anatomy in our country was I. V. Buyalsky (1789–1866).

Topographical anatomy (*topos* meaning place, *grapho* meaning to write) studies the spatial interrelationships of organs. It emerged as a discipline essential for practical medicine, particularly surgery, in which context it is also referred to as surgical anatomy. The pioneer of topographical and surgical anatomy was N. I. Pirogov (1810–1881).

Other branches of normal anatomy include dynamic anatomy (morphology), sports morphology, and age-related anatomy. Dynamic anatomy (from the Greek dynamikos—active) examines sports, occupational, artistic, and other Movements of the human body. Alongside dynamic anatomy, sports morphology investigates the anatomical changes that occur in the organism during these movements, including not only adaptive changes but also the outcomes of so-called athletic selection (for details, see p. 512). In our country, P.F. Lesgaft (1837–1909) pioneered the study of body movements from an anatomical perspective. Age-related anatomy studies the anatomical Features of the human organism in relation to age-related changes. The works of N.P. Gundobin (1860–1908) were of paramount importance in establishing this branch of anatomy in domestic science.

Typological anatomy, projection anatomy, X-ray anatomy, and theoretical anatomy are also distinguished. Typological anatomy, pioneered by V.N. Shevkunenko (1872–1952), explores the relationship between the internal structure of the body and its external forms. All the diversity of features in this relationship is classified into major groups, or types. This implements the anthropological approach in anatomy, the task of which is to investigate the forms (types) and factors of organismal variability. The subject of study in projection anatomy is the projection of human body organs onto its external surface. X-ray anatomy investigates the structure of the human body using X-rays. The achievements of this science in our country are associated with the names of D.G. Rokhlhin and M.G. Prives. Theoretical anatomy, which studies the general laws of body structure, was established in the late past century, with P.F. Lesgaft as its founder and the author of its name.

The deepening of anatomical research has currently led to the relative Separation of several branches of anatomy. Our country has traditional successes in studying the anatomy of The Lymphatic system, a credit belonging to G.M. Iosifov (1870–1933), D.A. Zhdanov (1908–1971), M.S. Spirov (1892–1973), Y.I. Borodin, M.R. Sapin, and their disciples. Scholars also focus on the Anatomy of the Brain and nervous system, a field where V.A. Betz (1834–1894), V.M. Bekhterev (1857–1927), V.P. Vorobyov, and V.N. Ternovsky (1888–1976) must be mentioned. Soviet anatomists made a substantial contribution to the study of Blood Vessels and the clarification of microcirculation pathways. The works of V.N. Tonkov (1872–1954), B.A. Dolgo-Saburov (1900–1960), V.V. Kupriyanov, and their students are of immense significance in this regard.

Undeniable are also the successes in developing the problems of age-related and Constitutional Morphology. The leading positions here belong to the anthropologists of the Moscow school, which was headed for many years by V.V. Bunak (1891–1979).

For a specialist in the field of physical culture and sports, not only the core content of human anatomy is important, but also much of what pertains to its branches. Constantly dealing with a living person, a physical education teacher, coach, or athlete resolves issues arising in their professional activity related to the Structural and functional features of the human body. For them, The Significance of the organism's age-related characteristics, the mutual arrangement and projection of organs, and the external forms of the human body is crucial.

Principles of Studying anatomy. P.F. Lesgaft wrote that "when studying anatomy, the living organism should always be the main object, from observations of which every study must proceed, whereas a dead specimen should serve only as a verification and Supplement to the living organism being studied"². Indeed, when studying anatomy, it is insufficient to rely solely on specimens, drawings, atlases, and books. It is necessary to observe and study a living person. For an athlete, such study plays a particularly vital role, as in practical activity they always deal with a living person. Therefore, the entire process of studying anatomy must be aimed at understanding the living human body, primarily concerning the motor apparatus. When examining an anatomical specimen, one must first clearly visualize where the given organ is located in a living person. It is necessary to learn how to determine on the living human body all prominent bony landmarks, large joint clefts, THE POSITION OF Muscles, and to understand the Significance of the latter for the relief of the external body surface. Palpating superficial muscles, one must learn to assess their state. When studying blood vessels, Arteries, Veins, and nerves, one should find their projection onto the outer surface of the body, determine the course of major arterial trunks by pulsation, and know the veins shining through the Skin. When studying Internal Organs—specifically the Lungs, Liver, Stomach, intestines, and Heart—It is important to clearly picture their position in a living person. The same applies to the BRAIN AND SPINAL cord, the projections of the cerebral hemispheres, Cerebellum, Medulla Oblongata, and other major structures, as well as certain sensory organ formations (such as the semicircular canals of the Inner ear). As a result of systematically conducted studies of anatomy on a living person, one can best achieve an understanding of the organism's internal structure through its external form.

The social significance of anatomy. Views of anatomy as a dead science frozen in invariable constancy are mistaken. Of course, the COMPOSITION OF THE Skeleton has not changed over the entire period of human evolution spanning several million years, and it has certainly retained its constancy in modern humans, whose presence on the planet is counted in millennia. However, the sizes of bones and other organs change from generation to generation due to uneven growth and development. The body's structure reflects living conditions, professional occupational features, dietary habits, and the level of physical workload. Physical culture and sports also play a significant role here.

² P. F. Lesgaft. Fundamentals of Theoretical Anatomy, vol. I. St. Petersburg: "T-vo Khudozh. pechati", 1905, pp. 1–2

As a recorder of changes occurring in the human body under unfavorable working and living conditions, an anatomist fulfills important social functions. The widespread campaign launched by morphologists—who proved the danger of radioactive radiation to heredity, The Emergence of Congenital Malformations under its influence, malignant neoplasms, and other pathologies—contributed to the ban on atmospheric atomic weapons testing. Morphologists also play a significant role in substantiating the irreparable consequences for humanity resulting from The Use of chemical weapons.

A coach and physical education teacher endowed with knowledge of anatomy and other biomedical disciplines must structure the training process so as not only to lead the athlete to high performance, but also to improve their health and physical development. The precept of the great physician of Ancient Greece, Hippocrates (c. 460–377 BC), "do no harm" is strictly mandatory not only for medical professionals who take the Hippocratic Oath upon graduating from higher education, but also for physical education specialists.