Human Anatomy - H. I. Koliadenko 2009

Structure of the Human Body
Human Evolution

Humans belong to the animal kingdom and share all the fundamental characteristics of living organisms. The primary features of life include GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT, continuous METABOLISM between the Organism and its environment, Variability and heredity, and active spatial locomotion.

From a biological standpoint, humans belong to the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, Class Mammalia, Order Primates, and family Hominidae.

According to Charles Darwin's theory, humans evolved through a long, gradual process driven by natural Selection (struggle for survival, environmental adaptation), variability, and heredity. Darwin believed that humans descended from an ape-like group. However, modern scientific research indicates that anthropoid apes are not human ancestors, despite appearing on our planet over 30 million years ago.

Anthropological excavations have revealed that approximately in the middle of the Tertiary period (about 60 million years ago), prosimians appeared on Earth. Through prolonged evolutionary development, they gave rise to anthropoid apes (Dryopithecus) that inhabited our planet nearly 30 million years ago. Discoveries by A. Greenwood (1931), Louis and Mary Leakey (1953), and later the skeletal remains of a proconsul (a hominid dating back roughly 25 million years) provided scientists with a basis for determining the initial timeframe of human emergence. It is believed that during this period (25–30 million years ago), the anthropoid branch diverged from the proconsul stock. Around 17 million years ago, anthropoids spread from Africa to Europe, India, and Central Asia. The split of anthropoids into African and Asian branches occurred approximately 16 million years ago, and 7–8 million years later, hominids separated from the African anthropoid Lineage.

Fascinating archaeological finds provide clear evidence of hominid evolution. In 1924, R. Dart discovered the skull of an anthropoid child in the Transvaal, with a Brain volume of 520 cm³ and a skull shape close to that of a human. Dart named this anthropoid Australopithecus africanus. Subsequent discoveries of numerous australopithecine skulls and skeletons established that they were all hunters who utilized bone tools. Based on these findings, scientists believe that the first hominids appeared on the planet over 4 million years ago.

In 1959, archaeologists Louis and Mary Leakey discovered the Skull of the earliest human ancestor in the Olduvai Gorge, East Africa, dating back 1.75 million years, which they named Zinjanthropus boisei. Its cranial capacity had already reached 530 cm³. In 1960, the Leakeys unearthed the SKULL OF A pre-zinjanthropus (dating back about 2.5 million years) that was already capable of crafting stone tools. The Leakeys named this creature Homo habilis (handy man), with a cranial capacity of 680–700 cm³. That same year, they discovered the remains of hominids capable of producing sophisticated tools, such as handaxes, and using stone spheres for hunting large game.

As archaeological excavations have shown, Homo habilis was succeeded in Africa by Homo erectus (upright man) around 1.6 million years ago, which appeared in Asia 1 million years later. Its brain volume exceeded 800 cm³.

Between 1881 and 1884, E. Dubois discovered skeletal remains of Pithecanthropus on the island of Java, featuring a cranial capacity of 850–900 cm³ and dating back 500–800 thousand years. Living around the same period was Sinanthropus, whose remains were uncovered in China in the 1920s. Its cranial capacity was slightly larger than that of Pithecanthropus. Scientists have established that Sinanthropuses consumed meat roasted over fire.

In 1856, skeletal remains of a Neanderthal were discovered in the Neander Valley in western Germany, followed by another find in Belgium thirty years later. Neanderthals possessed a massive Skeleton, a sloped forehead, prominent brow ridges, larger Teeth, and lacked a distinct chin projection, among other features. Their brain volume was comparable to that of modern humans. It has been established that Neanderthals lived 140–150 thousand years ago and developed an advanced culture known as the Mousterian. Scientists believe Neanderthals were already beginning to develop articulate speech.

Neanderthals were eventually succeeded by modern humans. Today, it is generally accepted that modern humans—known as Cro-Magnons, or Homo sapiens (wise man)—appeared over 30 thousand years ago. Their development was decisively shaped by social factors, primarily labor activity. Human evolution advanced not only through anatomical and behavioral changes (bipedalism, high brain development, The Hand as an organ of labor, and The formation of articulate speech), but also through the accumulation of knowledge and the cultural progress of humankind.