Human Anatomy and Physiology - N. I. Fedyukovich 2003

Introduction
A Brief History of Anatomy and Physiology

The development and formation of concepts in anatomy and physiology date back to ancient times.

Among the first anatomists known to history is Alcmaeon of Croton, who lived in the 5th century BC. He was the first to dissect animal carcasses to study their body Structure, and he hypothesized that the Sensory Organs are directly connected to the brain, and that sensory perception depends on the brain.

Hippocrates (c. 460 — c. 370 BC) was one of the most prominent medical scholars of Ancient Greece. He attached paramount importance to The Study of anatomy, Embryology, and physiology, considering them the foundation of all medicine. He gathered and systematized observations on The STRUCTURE OF THE human body, describing the BONES OF THE cranial vault and the sutural joints, The structure of the vertebrae, Ribs, Internal Organs, The Organ of Vision, Muscles, and major Blood Vessels.

Plato (427—347 BC) and Aristotle (384—322 BC) were outstanding natural philosophers of their time. Studying anatomy and embryology, Plato discovered that the brain of vertebrates develops from the anterior PARTS OF THE Spinal Cord. Aristotle, dissecting animal carcasses, described their internal organs, tendons, nerves, bones, and Cartilage. In his view, The Heart was the primary organ of the body. He named the largest blood vessel the aorta.

The Alexandrian school of medicine, established in the 3rd century BC, had a major influence on The Development of medical science and anatomy. Physicians of this school were permitted to dissect human cadavers for scientific purposes. During this period, the names of two outstanding anatomists became prominent: Herophilus (born c. 300 BC) and Erasistratus (c. 300 — c. 240 BC). Herophilus described the Meninges and venous sinuses, the ventricles of the brain and choroid plexuses, the Optic nerve and Eyeball, the duodenum, mesenteric vessels, and the prostate. Erasistratus described the Liver, Bile ducts, heart, and its Valves quite comprehensively for his time; he knew that blood from the Lungs enters the left atrium, then the left ventricle of the heart, and from there flows through the Arteries to the organs. The Alexandrian school of medicine is also credited with discovering the method of ligating blood vessels to stop bleeding.

The most prominent scholar in various fields of medicine after Hippocrates was the Roman anatomist and physiologist Galen (c. 130 — c. 201). He was the first to lecture on human anatomy, accompanying his lessons with the dissection of animals, mainly monkeys. Since the dissection of human cadavers was forbidden at the time, Galen transferred his findings on animal anatomy to humans without proper qualification. Possessing encyclopedic knowledge, he described 7 pairs (out of 12) of Cranial Nerves, Connective Tissue, Muscle nerves, the Blood vessels of the liver, Kidneys, and other internal organs, the periosteum, and ligaments.

Galen obtained crucial insights into the structure of the brain. He considered it the center of bodily sensation and the source of voluntary movement. In his book "On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body", he expressed his anatomical views, examining anatomical structures in inseparable connection with their function.

Galen's authority was immense. His books were used to teach medicine for nearly 13 centuries.

A major contribution to the development of medical science was made by the Tajik physician and philosopher Ibn Sina, or Avicenna (c. 980—1037). He wrote "The Canon of Medicine," which systematized and expanded upon Anatomical and physiological knowledge borrowed from the works of Aristotle and Galen. Avicenna's books were translated into Latin and went through more than 30 editions.

Beginning in the 16th–18th centuries, universities were established in many countries, medical faculties emerged, and the foundations of scientific anatomy and physiology were laid. A particularly significant contribution to the development of anatomy was made by the Italian Renaissance polymath and artist Leonardo da Vinci (1452—1519). He dissected 30 cadavers and made numerous drawings of bones, muscles, and internal organs, accompanying them with written explanations. Leonardo da Vinci laid the foundation for artistic anatomy.

The founder of scientific anatomy is considered to be Andreas Vesalius (1514—1564), a professor at the University of Padua. Based on his own observations during dissections, he wrote his classic seven-volume work "On the Fabric of The Human Body" (Basel, 1543). In it, he systematized the Skeleton, ligaments, muscles, vessels, nerves, internal organs, brain, and sensory organs. Vesalius's research and the publication of his books greatly advanced the field of anatomy. Subsequently, in the 16th and 17th centuries, his students and followers made numerous discoveries, describing many human organs in detail. The names of these scientists are immortalized in Anatomical Terminology: G. Falloppio (1523—1562) — Fallopian tubes; B. Eustachius (1510—1574) — Eustachian tube; M. Malpighi (1628—1694) — Malpighian corpuscles in the Spleen and kidneys.

Discoveries in anatomy paved the way for deeper research in physiology. The Spanish physician Michael Servetus (1511—1553) and Vesalius's student Realdo Colombo (1516—1559) hypothesized that blood passes from the right side of the heart to the left through the pulmonary vessels. Following extensive research, the English scientist William Harvey (1578—1657) published "An Anatomical Disquisition on the Motion of The Heart and Blood in Animals" (1628), proving that blood circulates through the systemic pathway and suggesting the existence of tiny vessels (capillaries) connecting arteries and Veins. These vessels were later discovered in 1661 by Marcello Malpighi, the founder of microscopic anatomy.

Furthermore, W. Harvey introduced vivisection into scientific research, which made it possible to observe the functioning of animal organs through tissue incisions. The Discovery of the Circulatory system is widely considered the founding date of animal physiology.

Coinciding with W. Harvey's discovery, a work by Gaspare Aselli (1591—1626) was published, in which he provided an anatomical Description of the lymphatic Vessels of the mesentery of the Small Intestine.

Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, not only did new anatomical discoveries emerge, but several new disciplines began to branch out: Histology, embryology, and somewhat later, comparative and topographic anatomy, and anthropology.

Charles Darwin's (1809—1882) teachings on the Influence of Environmental factors on the development of organismal forms and structures, as well as on the heritability of traits in their offspring, played a major role in the development of evolutionary Morphology.

The Cell Theory of Theodor Schwann (1810—1882) and Charles Darwin's theory of evolution presented anatomy with a series of new challenges: not only to describe but also to explain the structure of the human body and its features, to reveal the phylogenetic past within anatomical structures, and to explain how individual traits were shaped through human evolutionary history.

Among The most significant achievements of the 17th and 18th centuries was METABOLISM/2.html">THE CONCEPT OF the "reflected activity of the Organism," formulated by the French philosopher and physiologist René Descartes. He introduced the Concept of the reflex to physiology. Descartes' discovery laid the groundwork for the further development of physiology on a materialistic basis. Later, The concepts of the neural reflex, the reflex arc, and The Role of The Nervous System in the interaction between the organism and its environment were further developed in the works of the prominent Czech anatomist and physiologist Georg Prochaska (1748—1820). Advancements in physics and chemistry enabled the application of more precise Research Methods in anatomy and physiology.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, a particularly significant contribution to anatomy and physiology was made by several Russian scientists. M. V. Lomonosov (1711—1765) discovered the law of conservation of mass and energy, hypothesized that heat is generated within the body itself, formulated a trichromatic theory of Color Vision, and provided the first Classification of taste sensations. Lomonosov's student, A. P. Protasov (1724—1796), authored many works on human physique, as well as the STRUCTURE AND Functions of The Stomach.

S. G. Zabelin (1735—1802), a professor at Moscow University, lectured on anatomy and published the book "A Discourse on the Constitutions of the Human Body and Ways to Protect Them from Disease," in which he proposed the idea of a common origin for humans and animals.

In 1783, Y. M. Ambodik-Maximovich (1744-1812) published an "Anatomical-Physiological Dictionary" in Russian, Latin, and French, and in 1788, A. M. Shumlansky (1748—1795) described the glomerular capsule of the Kidney and the renal tubules in his book.

A prominent place in the development of anatomy belongs to E. O. Mukhin (1766—1850), who taught anatomy for many years and wrote the textbook "A Course in Anatomy."

The founder of topographic anatomy is N. I. Pirogov (1810—1881). He developed an innovative method of studying the human body using cross-sections of frozen cadavers. He authored such famous books as "A Complete Course of Applied Anatomy of the Human Body" and "Topographic Anatomy, Illustrated by Sections Conducted Through the Frozen Human Body in Three Directions." Pirogov studied and described fasciae and their relationship to blood vessels with particular care, attributing great practical significance to them. He summarized his research in the book "Surgical anatomy of Arterial Trunks and Fasciae."

Functional Anatomy was founded by the anatomist P. F. Lesgaft (1837—1909). His propositions regarding the possibility of altering the structure of the human body by influencing bodily functions through Physical Exercise formed The basis of the theory and practice of physical education.

P. F. Lesgaft was one of the first to apply radiography to anatomical research, as well as experimental methods on animals and methods of mathematical analysis.

The works of renowned Russian scientists C. F. Wolff, K. M. Baer, and H. I. Pander were devoted to embryology.

In the 20th century, functional and experimental fields of anatomy were successfully developed by such researchers as V. N. Tonkov (1872—1954), B. A. Dolgo-Saburov (1890-1960), V. N. Shevkunenko (1872-1952), V. P. Vorobyev (1876-1937), D. A. Zhdanov (1908-1971), and others.

The establishment of physiology as an independent science in the 20th century was significantly facilitated by advances in physics and chemistry, which provided researchers with precise methodological techniques to characterize the Physical and Chemical nature of physiological processes.

I. M. Sechenov (1829—1905) went down in The history of science as the first experimental researcher of a complex natural phenomenon — consciousness. Furthermore, he was the first to study blood gases, establish the relative efficacy of various ions on physicochemical processes in the living organism, and elucidate The phenomenon of summation in the Central nervous system (CNS). I. M. Sechenov gained his greatest fame after discovering The process of inhibition in the CNS. Following the publication of I. M. Sechenov's work 'Reflexes of the Brain' in 1863, the concept of mental activity was introduced into physiological foundations. Thus, a new perspective on The Unity of the physical and mental foundations of human beings was formed.

The development of physiology was greatly influenced by the works of I. P. Pavlov (1849—1936). He created The Theory of Higher Nervous Activity in humans and animals. Investigating the regulation and self-Regulation of Blood Circulation, he established the existence of specific nerves, some of which strengthen, others inhibit, and still others alter the force of cardiac contractions without changing their rate. Simultaneously, I. P. Pavlov studied the Physiology of Digestion. By developing and implementing a series of special surgical techniques, he established a new physiology of digestion. Studying the dynamics of digestion, he demonstrated its capacity to adapt secretory excitation to the consumption of various types of food. His book 'Lectures on the Work of the Main Digestive Glands' became a manual for physiologists worldwide. For his work in the physiology of digestion, I. P. Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1904. His discovery of the conditioned reflex paved the way for further Study of the mental processes underlying animal and human behavior. The results of I. P. Pavlov's long-term research formed the basis for the theory of higher nervous activity, according to which it is carried out by the higher parts of the nervous system and regulates the organism's interaction with the environment.

Belarusian scientists also made a significant contribution to the development of anatomy and physiology. The opening of the Medical Academy in Grodno in 1775, headed by the professor of anatomy J. E. Gilibert (1741—1814), facilitated the teaching of anatomy and other medical disciplines in Belarus. An anatomical theater, a museum, and a library with a vast collection of medical books were established at the academy.

A significant contribution to the development of physiology was made by Grodno native August Becu (1769—1824), the first professor of the independent Department of Physiology at Vilna University.

M. Homolicki (1791—1861), born in the Slonim district, headed the Department of Physiology at Vilna University from 1819 to 1827. He conducted extensive animal experiments and worked on blood transfusion issues. His doctoral dissertation was dedicated to the experimental study of physiology.

S. B. Jundzill, a native of the Lida district and professor of the Department of Natural Sciences at Vilna University, continued the research initiated by J. E. Gilibert and published a textbook on physiology. S. B. Jundzill believed that the life of organisms is in constant motion and in connection with the external environment, 'without which the existence of the organisms themselves is impossible.' Thus, he approached the concept of the evolutionary development of living nature.

Y. O. Tsybulsky (1854—1919) was the first to isolate an active adrenal extract in 1893—1896, which subsequently made it possible to obtain the Hormones of this endocrine gland in their pure form.

The Development of Anatomical Science in Belarus is closely linked to the opening of the Medical Faculty at the Belarusian State University in 1921. The founder of the Belarusian school of anatomists is Professor S. I. Lebedkin, who headed the Department of Anatomy of the Minsk Medical Institute from 1922 to 1934. The main focus of his research was the study of the THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF anatomy, determining the relationship between form and function, and elucidating the phylogenetic development of human organs. He summarized his research in the monograph 'The Biogenetic Law and the Theory of Recapitulation', published in Minsk in 1936. The research of the famous scientist D. M. Golub, Academician of the BSSR Academy of Sciences, who headed the Department of Anatomy of the MSMI from 1934 to 1975, was dedicated to the Development of the Peripheral Nervous System and the reinnervation of internal organs. For a series of fundamental works on the development of the Autonomic nervous system and the reinnervation of internal organs, D. M. Golub was awarded the State Prize of the USSR in 1973.

Over the last two decades, Professor P. I. Lobko has been fruitfully developing the ideas of S. I. Lebedkin and D. M. Golub. The main scientific focus of the team he leads is the study of theoretical aspects and patterns of the development of autonomic ganglia, trunks, and plexuses in Human and Animal Embryogenesis. A number of general patterns in The formation of the ganglionic component of autonomic nerve plexuses, extra- and intraorgan nerve ganglia, etc., have been established. For the textbook 'The Autonomic Nervous System' (atlas) (1988), P. I. Lobko, S. D. Denisov, and P. G. Pivchenko were awarded the State Prize of the Republic of Belarus in 1994.

Targeted research on human physiology is associated with the ESTABLISHMENT OF THE corresponding department at the Belarusian State University in 1921 and at the MSMI in 1930. Here, issues of Blood Circulation, neural mechanisms of cardiovascular regulation (I. A. Vetokhin), physiology and Pathology of the heart (G. M. Pruss et al.), compensatory mechanisms in cardiovascular activity (A. Y. Bronovitsky, A. A. Krivchik), cybernetic methods of circulatory regulation in health and disease (G. I. Sidorenko), and the Functions of the insular apparatus (G. G. Gatsko) were studied.

Systematic physiological research began in 1953 at the Institute of PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BSSR Academy of Sciences, which took an original direction toward studying the autonomic nervous system.

Academician I. A. Bulygin made a significant contribution to the development of physiology in Belarus. He dedicated his research to the study of the spinal cord, brain, and autonomic nervous system. For his monographs 'Studies of the Patterns and Mechanisms of Interoreceptive Reflexes' (1959), 'Afferent Pathways of Interoreceptive Reflexes' (1966), and 'Chain and Tubular Neurohumoral Mechanisms of Visceral Reflex Reactions' (1970), I. A. Bulygin was awarded the State Prize of the BSSR in 1972, and for a series of works published in 1964—1976, 'New Principles of the Organization of Autonomic Ganglia', the State Prize of the USSR in 1978.

The scientific research of Academician N. I. Arinchin is related to the physiology and pathology of blood circulation, as well as comparative and evolutionary gerontology. He developed new methods and devices for the comprehensive study of The Cardiovascular system.

The physiology of the 20th century is characterized by significant achievements in uncovering the functioning of organs, systems, and the organism as a whole. A distinctive feature of modern physiology is a deep analytical approach to the study of membrane and cellular processes, as well as the description of the Biophysical Aspects of Excitation and Inhibition. Knowledge of the quantitative relationships between various processes makes it possible to perform their mathematical modeling and to elucidate various disorders in the living organism.