Human Anatomy - H. I. Koliadenko 2009

The Development of Anatomical Science
General Information

Human anatomy belongs to the sciences that originated in deep antiquity. Paleolithic rock art indicates that people of those times already knew the Location within the Organism of such Organs as The Heart, Liver, Stomach, Lungs, and others. The Structure of certain Internal Organs can be learned from the ancient Chinese treatise «Huangdi Neijing» (The Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor), dating from the 11th–7th centuries BCE, while the Indian collection Ayurveda — the art of healing, The Doctrine of a long and healthy life (6th century BCE) — contains information on the Structure of Muscles, ligaments, tendons, nerves, and more. A significant influence on the Development of Anatomical science was exerted by the ritual embalming of corpses in Ancient Egypt. The Ebers Papyrus sets forth the anatomical and medical knowledge of the ancient Egyptians.

However, the most profound insights into human anatomy from that era can be found in the works of Ancient Greek scholars. One of the first anatomists of the antiquity period was Alcmaeon of Croton (6th–5th centuries BCE), who was the first to dissect animal corpses and study the structure of internal organs. He attached great importance to the Brain as the regulator of all internal organ Functions.

Hippocrates (459–377 BCE), the brilliant physician and anatomist of Ancient Greece whom history has for centuries honored with the title of the father of medicine, was the first to develop the DOCTRINE OF THE four postures and temperaments, and to describe the structure of individual bones and muscles of The Human Body, internal organs, and major Blood Vessels.

Aristotle (384–322 BCE) believed that the most important organ of the human body is the heart. He studied the structure of nerves, The Musculoskeletal System, embryonic development, and was the first to introduce the term «anthropology».

Herophilus (c. 300 BCE) and Erasistratus (300–250 BCE) were the first to dissect human corpses in Alexandria. Herophilus described the structure of certain Cranial Nerves, the Meninges, and venous sinuses. Erasistratus introduced the terms «artery» and «parenchyma», believing that the smallest Veins transition into Arteries, while nerves originate from the BRAIN AND SPINAL cord as their continuation.

The Roman physician Rufus (2nd century CE) provided a detailed description of The Organ of Vision, the optic chiasm, and the lens capsule; he viewed The Nervous system as uniting the various organs into a single, cohesive organism.

Claudius Galen (131–210 CE), the most prominent physician-scientist of Ancient Rome, synthesized the anatomical knowledge of his predecessors, studying the structure of nerves, muscles, joints, and organ functions. His works remained the primary source of anatomical and medical knowledge for 13 centuries, right up until the Renaissance.

During the 5th–10th centuries, the center of global culture shifted from Europe to the East, where many prominent scientists, including anatomists, worked during this period.

The world-renowned Eastern philosopher, scientist, and physician Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037) contributed a wealth of knowledge in anatomy, physiology, hygiene, and more in his monumental work, «The Canon of Medicine».

In the 12th–14th centuries, the first universities emerged in Western Europe, where medical faculties also taught anatomical sciences. In 1326, Mondino de' Luzzi (1275–1327) of Bologna authored an anatomy textbook that was republished for two centuries. In 1594, the first permanent anatomical theater was opened in Padua.

A major contribution to The Development of anatomical science was made by the brilliant Italian artist, scientist, engineer, and mathematician Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519). Alongside the physician Marcantonio della Torre from Pavia, he dissected corpses for decades and produced precise anatomical sketches. He published an anatomical atlas featuring over 800 accurate and original drawings of bones, muscles, the heart, and other organs. Leonardo da Vinci is regarded as the pioneer of Functional Anatomy.

The founder of descriptive and systematic anatomy was Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564). Through the investigation of human cadavers, he corrected the entire anatomy of his time, identifying about 200 significant errors made by Galen—most notably convincingly refuting Galen's claim that the right ventricle of the adult heart communicates with the left. Having gathered and systematized his anatomical research, he published his monumental work in 1543, «De humani corporis fabrica libri septem» (On the Fabric of the Human Body in Seven Parts), brilliantly illustrated by the artist Jan Stephan van Calcar, a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci and Titian. Part I describes the Skeleton; Part II, Ligaments and Muscles; Part III, blood vessels; Part IV, nerves; Part V, viscera; Part VI, The Heart and respiratory organs; and Part VII, the brain.

Vesalius's work on the further Study of the STRUCTURE OF THE human organism was continued by many prominent scientists, predominantly Italians.

Michael Servetus (1509–1553) described the lesser (pulmonary) Circulation of the blood. Due to his materialist convictions, the Inquisition declared him a heretic, and the scientist, along with his theological writings, was burned at the stake in Switzerland.

Gabriele Falloppio (1523–1562), in his book «Observationes Anatomicae» (Anatomical Observations), provided a detailed characterization of the dental apparatus, reproductive organs (fallopian tubes), Kidneys, and the organs of Hearing and vision.

Bartolomeo Eustachi (1510–1574) provided a detailed Description of the Water/140.html">Anatomical Structure of the kidneys, Adrenal Glands, middle and Inner ear (Eustachian tube), Teeth, and veins.

Girolamo Fabricius (1537–1619) described the structure of the Esophagus, Larynx, eyes, and venous Valves. He is recognized as a founder of Embryology and comparative anatomy.

William Harvey (1578–1657), in his seminal work «Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus» (Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, 1628), proved that blood circulates through a closed loop of vessels.

Gasparo Aselli (1585–1626) discovered the Lymphatic vessels, which had previously been considered branches of nerves. The work describing them was published in 1622.

Thus, by the end of the 16th century, sufficient data had been accumulated to accurately describe Blood Circulation.

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek's (1632–1723) invention of the Microscope enabled scientists to study the microscopic structure of Cells, individual tissues, nerves, and tiny blood vessels. For instance, Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694) described the structure of pulmonary alveoli and capillaries, erythrocytes, kidneys, Spleen, Skin, and other organs. Georges Cuvier (1769–1832) established the doctrine of animal types and formulated THE PRINCIPLE OF the correlation of parts in organisms.

Marie François Xavier Bichat (1771–1802), a French anatomist, physiologist, and clinician, is regarded as the founder of Histology—the science of tissues. He divided the Autonomic nervous system into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

A major contribution to the establishment of modern embryology was made by the renowned Russian scientist Karl Ernst von Baer (1792–1876), who developed the germ layer theory.

The prominent German scientist Theodor Schwann (1810–1882) formulated the Cell Theory, based on its fundamental tenets: 1) all tissues are composed of cells; 2) PLANT AND ANIMAL cells are structurally similar; and 3) the vital activity of each cell is independent.

A significant contribution to the advancement of cell theory was made by Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902). He proved that cells arise exclusively through division—«omnis cellula e cellula» (all cells come from cells).

Charles Darwin (1809–1882) in his work On THE ORIGIN OF Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life not only explained The Structure of the human body but also outlined the pathways of its purposeful evolution.

The Lyon scientist Sunao Tawara and the German scientist Ludwig Aschoff described the structure of the cardiac conduction system.

The Dane August Krogh studied the structure of capillaries, J. Langley first described the structure of the autonomic nervous system, and K. von Monakow, P. Flechsig, and O. Vogt studied the structure of the human brain in detail.

In Russia, anatomical science began to develop much later than abroad—in the first half of the XVII century, with The Emergence of the first medical schools. During this period, Epiphanius Slavinetsky translated Andreas Vesalius's anatomy textbook into Church Slavonic (1658).

Domestic anatomy originated and began its purposeful development initially at the Russian Academy of Sciences, founded in 1725, and later at Moscow University, opened in 1755 by the prominent Russian scientist M. V. Lomonosov (1711–1765). He urged The Study of the structure of the body and its organs through direct observation.

A significant contribution to the development of anatomical science in Russia was made by Lomonosov's student and the first native professor of anatomy, A. P. Protasov (1724–1796). He translated popular medical works into Russian and developed Russian medical terminology, examining bodily form in connection with its function and environmental conditions. M. I. Schein translated Heister's work Compendium Anatomicum (1757) into Russian and published the first glossary of Russian Anatomical Terminology.

The second half of the XVIII century was marked by the emergence of many talented anatomists. For instance, D. I. Ivanov morphologically substantiated and explained the function of the nervous system from a materialist perspective (1750). A. M. Shumlyansky (1748–1795) provided a detailed description of the structure of the glomerular capsule and renal tubules, publishing the treatise On the Structure of the Kidneys (1782).

77. P. A. Zagorsky (1764–1846), a professor at the St. Petersburg Medico-Surgical Academy, utilized comparative anatomy in his research and published Russia's first classical two-volume textbook on anatomy (A Brief Anatomy, or a Guide to Understanding the Structure of the Human Body, 1802).

E. Y. Mukhin (1766–1850) refined the Russian anatomical nomenclature and authored the most comprehensive manual on anatomy of that time in 8 parts (1818).

I. V. Buyalsky (1789–1866), a student of P. A. Zagorsky, was for a long time the only specialist in Russia for embalming corpses and organs using his own original method; he also authored numerous works on plastic anatomy.

The prominent Russian scientist and physician N. I. Pirogov (1810–1881) developed an original method of serial sectioning of frozen corpses to study the topography of various body organs. This work culminated in the publication of his monumental treatise, Topographical Anatomy of Frozen Slices of the Human Body, Made in Three Directions (1852–1859). The work consists of a fundamental course in topographical anatomy and a four-volume atlas containing 212 plates depicting 970 sections of the human body. N. I. Pirogov is rightfully regarded as the founder of topographical anatomy. He established the Anatomical Institute (Museum) at the St. Petersburg Medico-Surgical Academy and made extraordinary contributions to the development of medicine.

K. M. Baer (1792–1876), a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, made a crucial contribution to the establishment of modern embryology by describing the structure of the mammalian ovum (1827) and the Cytology/cytology/16.html">Early stages of germ layer development.

P. F. Lesgaft (1837–1909) is considered the founder of functional anatomy and The Theory of physical education. He is the author of the world-renowned work Foundations of Theoretical Anatomy, which retains its scientific value to this day. P. F. Lesgaft put forward and substantiated METABOLISM/2.html">THE CONCEPT OF the targeted impact of physical education on the human body.

Professor V. O. Betz (1834–1894) of Kyiv University was the first to describe the large pyramidal Cells of the Cerebral Cortex, which are named after him, and the first to morphologically identify the motor area of the brain. He is justly regarded as the founder of the cytoarchitectonics of the cerebral cortex.

M. P. Gundobin (1860–1908) devoted his career to the study of pediatric anatomy, hygiene, and pathology.

The works of V. M. Tonkov, B. O. Dolgo-Saburov, V. N. Shevkunenko, and V. P. Vorobyov are of great importance for the development of anatomical science.

V. M. Tonkov (1872–1954) advanced functional anatomy, was among the first to apply X-ray imaging to Bone Structure research, developed the theory of collateral circulation, and investigated the plasticity of blood vessels.

B. O. Dolgo-Saburov (1900–1960), a student of V. M. Tonkov, also studied collateral circulation and neurovascular relationships within the Central Nervous System, and researched the FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF The Vascular System, venous bed plasticity, and its innervation.

V. N. Shevkunenko (1872–1952) headed a major school of topographic anatomists, studying constitutional and age-related anatomy, which allowed for variations in body structure and fostered an individualized approach in practical surgery. V. N. Shevkunenko authored the first domestic manual on operative surgery and topographical anatomy.

V. P. Vorobyov (1876–1937) published a five-volume anatomical atlas, laid the foundations for the school of macromicroscopic Anatomy of the Peripheral Nervous System, and developed a method for embalming corpses.

M. F. Ivanitsky (1895–1969) worked in the field of functional anatomy with Applications to sports practice, thereby initiating sports Morphology.

M. A. Gremyatsky (1887–1963), author of a human anatomy textbook for biologists, pursued research in comparative anatomy, paleontology, and anthropology.