BIOTECHNOLOGY - Inshyna N.M. - 2009

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Abzymes — Antibodies that exhibit catalytic activity.

Adenine — a purine nitrogenous base that is part of Nucleic Acids. Adenine is complementary to thymine and uracil.

Aerobic organisms, aerobes — organisms that exist in the presence of free oxygen in the environment.

Allele — one of two alternative structural forms of a Gene.

Amplification — the generation of additional copies of DNA nucleotide sequences.

Anaerobic organisms, anaerobes — organisms that exist in the absence of free oxygen in the environment.

Antibiotics — specific chemical substances synthesized by microorganisms that are capable, in small quantities, of exerting a selective toxic effect on other microorganisms and tumor Cells.

Antigens — substances that are recognized by the Organism as foreign and trigger an Immune Response.

Antiparallel orientation — the opposite directional orientation (5'→3' and 3'→5') of polynucleotide chains in double-stranded nucleic acid molecules.

Antibody — a protein (immunoglobulin) synthesized by B-lymphocytes in response to the Introduction of an antigen into the organism.

Auxins — phytohormones that stimulate plant growth.

Outcrossing — the migration of transgenes from genetically modified plants to wild or conventional agricultural crops.

Autologous cells — cells that are isolated from an organism, modified in a certain way, and reintroduced back into the donor organism.

Bacteriophage — a virus that infects Bacteria.

Bacteriophage λ — an E. coli bacteriophage widely used as a vector in DNA Cloning.

Baculovirus — a virus that infects insects.

Biolistic transfection — a method for introducing DNA into Organelles or cells by coating the DNA onto The surface of tungsten or gold particles and “shooting” them into the cells.

Single-Cell Protein — protein products synthesized by a monoculture of microorganisms and used as a feed Supplement in animal diets.

Bioaccumulation — the accumulation of a specific substance (such as DDT) in living organisms.

Biodegradation — The breakdown of environmental pollutants by means of living organisms.

Biocontrol — a process in which Living organisms are used to limit the GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT of pathogenic microorganisms.

Bioreactor (fermenter) — a device in which biochemical reactions take place with the participation of microorganisms, their cell extracts, or Enzymes.

Biotechnology — the science of Methods and technologies for creating genetically modified biological objects to intensify production and obtain new types of products.

Blotting is The transfer of separated molecules from one medium (such as a gel) to a solid support (such as a nitrocellulose filter).

Vector is a DNA molecule used to transfer genes from a donor organism to a recipient organism, as well as for the cloning of nucleotide sequences.

Western blotting is the transfer of protein molecules, separated by gel Electrophoresis, onto a solid support.

Virion is a viral particle.

Virulence is a characteristic of a microorganism's pathogenicity.

Viruses are non-Cellular forms of life capable of penetrating living cells and multiplying exclusively within these cells.

B cells are antibody-producing lymphocytes that originate from Bone Marrow cells.

Secondary metabolites are substances that are not essential for the growth and functioning of microbial cells.

Gametes are reproductive haploid cells of Multicellular Organisms.

Gene is a region of DNA that encodes the Primary Structure of a polypeptide, a Transfer RNA, or a ribosomal RNA molecule.

vir genes are a group of Ti plasmid genes that ensure the transfer of T-DNA into a plant cell.

Genetic Code is the system by which Genetic information is stored as a nucleotide sequence, in which every triplet of NUCLEOTIDES (codon) encodes a single amino acid.

Genetic immunization is the induction of an immune response by introducing into cells a gene that encodes an antigenic protein.

Genetic Engineering is a branch of molecular biology concerned with the in vitro creation of novel combinations of genetic material capable of synthesizing metabolic products.

Ex Vivo Gene therapy is the Introduction of a gene into isolated cells of a patient. Following cultivation and transformation, the cells are reintroduced into the patient's body. This Procedure allows for the Correction of Genetic defects.

In Vivo Gene therapy is the direct introduction of a gene into a patient's tissue or organ for the purpose of correcting genetic defects.

Genome is the basic haploid set of an organism's Chromosomes.

Genomic library, or gene bank, is a collection of cloned DNA fragments that collectively represent an entire genome.

Reporter gene is a gene that encodes an easily detectable protein. Such genes are used to verify the successful incorporation of recombinant DNA into a cell.

Heteromeric protein is a protein composed of two or more different polypeptide chains (subunits).

DNA Hybridization is the joining of DNA fragments or whole DNA molecules from different sources.

Hybrid protein (chimeric protein) is a polypeptide chain that is the product of cloned sequences from different genes.

Hybridoma is a hybrid cell obtained by the fusion of lymphocytes and myeloma cells. Hybridomas possess the capacity for unlimited growth and the synthesis of Monoclonal Antibodies.

Glycosylation is the covalent attachment of a carbohydrate moiety to a protein molecule.

β-1,3-Glucanase is an enzyme that hydrolyzes Cell wall components of pathogenic Fungi, synthesized by plants and certain bacteria.

Homozygosity refers to the presence of identical alleles at one or more loci. A cell or organism carrying such alleles is called a homozygote.

Homomeric protein - a protein composed of multiple identical polypeptide chains (subunits).

Guanine - a purine nitrogenous base that is a constituent of nucleic acids. Guanine is complementary to cytosine.

Deoxyribose - a pentose sugar that is a component of DNA.

Deoxyribonuclease I, DNase I - an enzyme that cleaves double-stranded DNA. It is commonly used to purify RNA preparations.

Deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA - a polymer composed of deoxyribonucleotides; the species-specific carrier of genetic information.

DNA Denaturation - the loss of the three-dimensional structure of DNA due to the disruption of Hydrogen Bonds, resulting in the Separation of DNA strands.

Dideoxynucleotide - a nucleoside triphosphate lacking both the 2'- and 3'-hydroxyl groups in its pentose ring structure.

Diploid - an organism whose cells contain two homologous sets of chromosomes.

Disulfide bond - a covalent bond between two sulfur atoms belonging to Cysteine residues. Disulfide Bonds stabilize the three-dimensional structure of Proteins.

Diazotroph - an organism capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen.

DNA ligase - an enzyme that catalyzes The formation of 3',5'-phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides at a DNA strand break.

DNA polymerase - an enzyme that catalyzes METABOLISM/36.html">DNA Replication.

Taq DNA polymerase - a thermostable DNA polymerase from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus (maintains activity at temperatures up to 95°C), widely used in PCR Applications.

Dominance - the phenomenon in which only one allele determines the phenotype in a heterozygous organism.

Exon - a coding region of a eukaryotic gene (contains information for The structure of a polypeptide or RNA).

Explantation - a method for maintaining the viability of tissue fragments outside the organism.

Gene Expression - the Transcription and Translation of genes.

Electroporation - the formation of pores in cell membranes under The Influence of an electric field. Foreign DNA enters The Cell through these pores.

Electrophoresis - a method for separating charged molecules (DNA, RNA, proteins) based on their differing migration rates in an electric field.

Embryonic Stem Cells - cells derived from embryos at the blastocyst stage that are capable of differentiating into any cell type.

Eukaryotes - organisms possessing a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotes include animals, plants, fungi, and certain Algae.

Transformation efficiency - The ratio of successfully transformed cells to The amount of transforming DNA, typically expressed as the number of transformants per 1 μg of DNA.

Vector capacity - the maximum size of a DNA insert that can be successfully cloned into a given vector.

Replacement therapy - the administration of metabolites, Cofactors, or Hormones to compensate for a deficiency caused by a genetic defect.

Reverse Transcriptase is an RNA-dependent DNA polymerase that uses an RNA molecule as a template to synthesize a complementary DNA strand.

Immunoaffinity Chromatography is a Protein Fractionation and purification method in which an antibody immobilized on a matrix binds a specific protein.

Immunoassy is a method based on the ability of an antibody to interact with a specific component of a biological sample.

Immunotherapy is The Use of antibodies for the Treatment of patients.

Indole-3-acetic acid is a plant hormone of the auxin Class that stimulates plant growth.

Insecticide is a substance used to kill insects.

Interleukins are immune system growth factors—proteins produced by T-lymphocytes and macrophages that stimulate the proliferation of lymphocytes and certain other body cells.

Interferons are protein factors synthesized by specific cells in response to a viral infection. Interferons act as universal antiviral agents.

Intron is a non-informative region of a eukaryotic gene (a non-coding sequence).

Callus is a newly formed plant tissue arising at sites of injury.

Capsid is the protein coat of viruses.

Cap is a methylated guanosine residue at the 5' end of eukaryotic mRNA.

Germline cells are cells that progressively develop into gametes.

Cell engineering is a branch of biology aimed at acquiring new genetic information through the hybridization and reconstruction of cells maintained in culture.

Cell line consists of cells that can be cultivated outside an organism for an indefinitely long period of time.

Clone is a population of molecules, cells, or organisms that are exact copies of a single common ancestor. Clones are produced asexually.

Cloning encompasses a set of methods and techniques used to isolate and propagate asexually genetically homogeneous DNA fragments, cells, or organisms that are exact copies of a single ancestor.

DNA cloning is a system of methods used to produce cloned DNA: Isolation of the target gene, its insertion into a plasmid (vector), introduction into a host organism cell, and multiple replication.

Codon is a sequence of three nucleotides that encodes a specific amino acid.

Complementary DNA, or cDNA, is a DNA molecule synthesized from mRNA using an RNA-dependent DNA polymerase (reverse transcriptase).

Crown gall is a plant tumor induced by bacteria of the genus Agrobacterium.

Cosmid is a plasmid containing the inserted cos site of phage λ DNA.

Cofermentation is the simultaneous growth of two microorganisms in a single bioreactor.

Xenobiotics are unnatural, synthetic chemical compounds.

Culture is a population of cells or microorganisms grown under controlled in vitro conditions.

«Sticky ends» are mutually complementary single-stranded DNA regions formed during the Cleavage of double-stranded DNA by restriction enzymes.

Lysis is the destruction of cell walls resulting from the action of various agents.

Lytic cycle is the Reproduction of a virus within a host cell, culminating in cell lysis.

Locus is the specific physical site on a chromosome where a particular gene is located.

Macrophage is a leukocyte capable of phagocytosis.

Messenger RNA, mRNA is an RNA molecule that contains information regarding the Amino Acid Sequence of a protein molecule. mRNA serves as a template for the synthesis of cellular proteins.

Mesophiles are organisms that grow at temperatures ranging from 20 to 50ºС; the optimal growth Temperature is 37ºС.

Meristem is a plant tissue characterized by The ability to undergo active Cell Division. In young plants, meristem is located at the tips of roots and shoots.

Metabolic Overload is the disruption of host organism metabolism resulting from the introduction of foreign DNA into its genome.

Methylation is the attachment of a methyl group to a molecule.

Microinjection is the introduction of DNA or other molecules into a cell using a fine microinjection needle.

Mycelium is the vegetative body of a fungus.

Mobile genetic element is a DNA segment capable of changing its position within The Genome. These elements include IS-elements and Transposons.

Molecular Diagnostics is the detection of a pathogenic microorganism, specific substance, or altered nucleotide sequence using molecular biology methods.

Monoclonal antibodies are IMMUNOGLOBULINS identical in structure and Specificity, The Biosynthesis of which is carried out by cloned hybridomas.

Mutagenesis is the process by which Mutations arise.

Mutagens are factors that increase the frequency of mutations.

Mutant is an organism altered As a result of a mutation.

Mutations are spontaneous or induced heritable changes in genome structure.

Continuous Fermentation is the CULTIVATION OF MICROORGANISMS with the continuous addition of nutrient medium components into a bioreactor and the removal of an equivalent volume of cell suspension.

Nucleoside is a compound consisting of a nitrogenous base and a sugar—ribose (ribonucleosides) or deoxyribose (deoxyribonucleosides).

Nucleoid is the DNA-containing region of a Prokaryotic Cell.

Nucleotide is a compound consisting of a nitrogenous base, a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and one or more phosphate groups.

Oncogenes are genes whose expression results in the transformation of normal Eukaryotic cells into malignant ones.

Opines are products of the Condensation of Amino Acids with keto acids or CARBOHYDRATES.

Palindrome — a nucleotide sequence identical in both strands of DNA in the 5'→3' direction.

Primary culture — a cell or tissue culture obtained directly from an organism.

Batch fermentation — the cultivation of microorganisms over a limited time interval (no nutrients are added and no synthesized products are removed until the cultivation process is complete).

Fed-batch fermentation — the cultivation of microorganisms over a limited time interval with the periodic addition of substrate.

DNA melting — thermal denaturation of DNA.

Plasmid — an extrachromosomal, double-stranded, circular DNA molecule capable of autonomous replication.

Polyvalent vaccine — a vaccine that provides an immune response against multiple infectious agents or different epitopes of the same molecule.

Polyhedrin — the major capsid protein of Baculoviruses.

Polymerase Chain Reaction, PCR — a method for the amplification of a specific DNA segment. The process consists of cyclically repeated reactions: DNA denaturation, primer annealing, and DNA Synthesis.

Post-translational modification — the alteration of Protein Structure following the completion of synthesis. Such modifications include phosphorylation, glycosylation, cleavage of signal Peptides, cysteine oxidation, etc.

Primer — a short oligoribonucleotide from which DNA synthesis initiates.

Human Genome Project — an international research program aimed at mapping The Human Genome and determining the complete DNA nucleotide sequence.

Prokaryotes — organisms that lack a distinct nucleus. All bacteria are prokaryotes.

Proteinases, proteases — enzymes that cleave peptide bonds in protein molecules.

Proteolysis — the enzymatic Breakdown of Proteins.

Protoplast — a plant, fungal, or bacterial cell whose cell wall has been completely removed.

Processing — the series of cellular events leading to the formation of mature RNA or protein molecules, including the sequential cleavage of precursor molecules by endonucleases or proteinases.

Psychrophiles — microorganisms capable of growth at temperatures of 0–5 °C.

Recombinant DNA — a DNA molecule formed by combining genes in a new combination. It is created in vitro by

joining DNA fragments from different organisms.

Recombinant protein — a protein that is the product of recombinant DNA gene expression.

DNA renaturation — The process of restoring the native structure of denatured DNA.

Replication — the process of self-duplication of DNA.

Repression — the suppression of transcription or translation.

Restriction enzyme (restriction endonuclease) — a bacterial enzyme that cleaves double-stranded DNA molecules at specific sites.

Retroviruses are a group of RNA viruses containing reverse transcriptase; DNA synthesized based on viral mRNA can be integrated into the chromosome of the virus-infected cell.

Ribose is a pentose sugar that is a component of RNA.

Ribozymes are RNA molecules with catalytic properties.

Ribonucleic acid, or RNA, is a nucleic acid composed of ribonucleotides. The MAIN TYPES OF RNA include mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.

Ribosomal RNA, or rRNA, is the RNA component of Ribosomes.

Rhizosphere is the narrow region of soil directly influenced by plant roots.

RNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of RNA from ribonucleotide triphosphates, using DNA or RNA as a template. Depending on the template used, these enzymes are referred to as DNA-dependent or RNA-dependent RNA polymerases.

Site-specific (oligonucleotide-directed) mutagenesis is the introduction of in vitro mutations at specific sites within a cloned nucleotide sequence. This method allows researchers to identify functional regions in protein molecules and engineer proteins with desired properties.

Southern blotting is a method used to analyze DNA fragments. DNA is digested with restriction enzymes and the resulting fragments are separated by electrophoresis.

Cos sites are nucleotide sequences at the ends of the λ phage genome that are essential for packaging DNA into phage particles.

Sequencing is the process of determining The nucleotide sequence of DNA and RNA.

Siderophore is a low-molecular-weight compound that chelates iron with high affinity, synthesized by microorganisms inhabiting the soil.

Symbiosis is a mutually beneficial coexistence of different organisms.

Somatic cell is any non-germ cell of a multicellular organism.

Stem cell is an undifferentiated cell capable of developing into specialized cell types of the organism.

Structural Genes are regions of the genome that encode RNA or proteins.

T-DNA is a segment of the Ti plasmid that integrates into the nuclear DNA of the host plant cell, causing crown gall tumors in plants.

Thermophiles are microorganisms that thrive at temperatures above 50°C. Some thermophiles can grow at temperatures ranging from 90 to 100°C.

Thymine is a pyrimidine nitrogenous base found in DNA, which forms complementary Base Pairs with adenine.

Ti plasmid is a plasmid found in the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens, whose T-region is capable of integrating into nuclear DNA.

Totipotency is the ability of a cell to express the full genetic potential of its nucleus, enabling cellular differentiation as well as The Development of totipotential fertilized eggs into a complete organism.

Transgenesis is the introduction of a foreign gene into a plant or animal cell.

Transgenic organism is an organism whose genome contains foreign genetic material.

Transduction is the process by which genetic material is transferred from one bacterial cell to another by a bacteriophage.

Transcriptome is the complete set of all RNA transcripts produced in a cell.

Transcription is the process of mRNA synthesis based on a DNA template.

Translation is the process of Protein Synthesis based on an mRNA template.

Transplantation is the grafting of a tissue or organ into a plant, animal, or human.

Transfer RNA, tRNA, is an RNA molecule that transports amino acids to ribosomes.

Transfection is the process of introducing bacteriophage DNA into cells.

Transformation is the alteration of a cell's hereditary traits resulting from the uptake of foreign DNA.

Uracil is a pyrimidine nitrogenous base found in RNA. Uracil is complementary to adenine.

Enzymes are biological catalysts of a protein nature.

Fertility is the ability of organisms to produce viable offspring.

Physical gene map is the physical Location of genes on a chromosome. On such a map, distances are measured in base pairs.

Nitrogen Fixation is The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia. This process is catalyzed by the enzyme Nitrogenase, which is found exclusively in prokaryotes.

Phytopathogens are organisms (fungi, bacteria, viruses) that cause plant diseases.

Phytoremediation is the use of plants to clean up chemical pollutants from the environment.

Folding is the process by which a protein acquires its three-dimensional structure.

Chemosynthesis is a type of Bacterial Nutrition based on the assimilation of CO₂ driven by The oxidation of Inorganic Compounds.

Chimera is an organism containing cells, Tissues, and Organs from different organisms.

Chitinase is an enzyme that hydrolyzes Chitin in the fungal cell wall; it is synthesized by plants and certain bacteria in response to pathogenic fungal infection.

Chromosome is a supramolecular STRUCTURE OF THE Cell Nucleus, based on a condensed DNA molecule; it serves as the carrier of genetic information.

Cytosine is a pyrimidine nitrogenous base that is part of nucleic acids. Cytosine is complementary to guanine.

Cytokinins are phytohormones that induce cell division.

Pure lines are organisms homozygous for specific traits.

Strain is a culture of genetically uniform microorganisms.

Artificial bacterial chromosome is a vector system based on the E. coli F-plasmid, used for cloning long sequences (100 - 300 kbp).

Human artificial chromosome is a chromosome formed by combining telomeres, a centromere, and human genomic DNA segments.

Yeast artificial chromosome is a recombinant DNA molecule consisting of a plasmid, yeast centromeric and telomeric chromosomal regions, and marker genes.

P1 artificial chromosome is a vector system based on phage P1, used to introduce nucleotide sequences of 100 to 300 kb in length into E. coli cells.