PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY - 2013

Section II. METHODOLOGICAL SUPPORT FOR FIELD PRACTICE

2.1. Purpose of the Academic Discipline "Pharmaceutical Botany":

To consolidate and expand students' theoretical knowledge, skills, and abilities in plant Morphology, Taxonomy, ecology, phytocenology, and the geography of medicinal plants.

To apply acquired knowledge and skills in practice regarding plant morphological description techniques, identifying diagnostic features, and determining taxonomic affiliation based on specific characteristics or using identification keys.

To master the rules of collecting and Processing plant material, specifically herbarium preparation, fixation, and drying of plants or their Organs.

To familiarize students with the basic cultivation rules for open- and closed-ground medicinal plants, plant communities in practice areas (forests, meadows, Water bodies, etc.), and to foster a mindful, protective attitude toward rare and endangered species.

To learn how to observe plants in nature: developmental features, seasonal structural changes, sanitary roles in urbanized environments, and to compile their ecologo-morphological descriptions.

During the practice, remember:

- when collecting plants, do not pull them out; they must be cut or carefully dug up. Collect only in quantities that do not disturb the plant cover.

- avoid harvesting large quantities of plants from their natural habitats if they are locally rare.

- During excursions, collecting or damaging plants is prohibited, especially in botanical gardens, nature reserves, and artificial plantations.

- It is strictly forbidden to collect plant species listed in the Red Data Book, rare species, and protected plants; only their Location should be recorded.

- Phenological observations (where possible) must be conducted only on living plants.

2.2. General Rules for Herbarium Preparation

A herbarium (from Lat. herba – grass) is a collection of plants or their parts gathered, dried in one way or another, and mounted on heavy paper or cardboard of a standard format. The practice of making herbaria was introduced by the Italian Luca Ghini in the mid-16th century. Herbaria serve educational and scientific purposes. They provide essential material for taxonomists and serve as documentary Evidence of the Distribution of a particular species in a given locality.

Plant collection for a herbarium requires: a sufficient supply of suitable drying paper (old newspapers, filter paper, cotton wool, etc.); a herbarium press; a dense cardboard paper folder; a metal trowel and knife for digging up underground plant parts; a hook for retrieving aquatic plants; pruners for cutting branches; a magnifying Glass, lancet, scissors, paper bags for seeds, polyethylene bags for roots, and pencils.

Aboveground plant parts should be collected fresh, showing no signs of wilting, in dry weather after the dew has evaporated. Herbaceous plants intended for a herbarium must include leaves, flowers, fruits, and underground parts. Therefore, they should not be pulled out

by hand, but carefully excavated to preserve their natural coloration and prevent damage. Shrub and tree branches are cut using pruners. Several specimens of each plant should be collected; rare plants should be sampled as a single specimen. Medium-sized plants are preferred. Plants whose main parts develop asynchronously should be collected in two stages (for example, coltsfoot).

Collected plants must be laid out for drying immediately. Thick stems, roots, and succulent fruits are sliced lengthwise, and if necessary, the inner pith is carefully removed with a knife while maintaining the object's overall shape.

Large plants should be folded so that all parts fit on the paper; sometimes the middle section is cut out, dried separately, and rejoined during mounting. For heavily branched plants, their parts should be interleaved with pieces of filter paper to prevent overlapping. Small plants can be mounted several to a sheet, ensuring they do not overlap. Flowers should be cushioned with a thin layer of cotton wool. Delicate plants (e.g., violets) are placed directly on filter paper. Marsh plants must be washed, slightly dried, and only then placed in the press.

Methods of Plant drying. Before drying, fresh plants are laid out on paper and all their parts are carefully straightened. Plants can be dried using various methods.

Drying plants in paper under a press. Plants are placed between sheets of filter paper or newspaper, stacked, placed under a press or into a herbarium net, and kept in a dry, warm place (exposed to wind, sunlight, or near a warm stove). Plants containing high amounts of moisture should be interleaved with multiple layers of newspaper, which must be changed daily. At the beginning of the drying process, the paper is replaced every 3–5 hours. Dampened paper can be dried and reused. As the plants dry, paper changes are needed less frequently—no more than twice a day, morning and evening.

Drying plants using a hot iron (accelerated drying). The plant is placed between sheets of filter paper or newspaper, set on top of a stack of newspapers, and ironed with a hot iron at short intervals until completely dry.

Volumetric drying (sand drying). This method is used when it is necessary to preserve the natural three-dimensional shape of a plant. Plants are dried in cardboard boxes sized According to the plant's dimensions. The box is secured with paper clips. A 1 cm layer of sand (well-washed quartz or river sand free of impurities) is poured into the box, the plant is laid upon it, and more sand is carefully poured over it so as not to disarrange the leaves or flower structures. To prevent the plant from deforming during drying, 2–3 cardboard Supports can be placed inside the box to hold shoots or flowers in place before covering them with sand. The sand-filled box is placed in a thermostat at 25–40 °C for 2–3 days. Afterward, the box is removed, the clips are taken off, and the sand is gently shaken out. The dried plant is placed in a glass-topped box to ensure a moisture-free environment. In a humid environment, flowers lose their natural color and turn brown.

Herbarium preparation. The dried plant is sewn or glued with paper strips onto heavy paper or cardboard so that it looks natural. The sheet of paper must have a border 0.5 cm from the edge. In the lower right corner, a frame is made for a label containing the following data: the scientific (Latin) and common name of the plant and family; the collection site (forest, meadows, riverbank, etc.); location (region, district); collection date; full name of the collector.

Herbarium storage. A herbarium with a completed label is a scientific document; it is stored in a dry, dark place, in tightly closed boxes or

a cabinet. For better preservation, each herbarium sheet is placed in a transparent plastic bag. It is also necessary to protect the herbarium from pests, so it is recommended to interleave the plants with naphthalene or other agents.

2.3. Sample instruction for harvesting tormentil rhizomes

(Tormentil rhizome — Rhizoma Tormentillae

Tormentil (sheepsbane) — Potentilla erecta

Rose family — Rosaceae)

The raw material is harvested during flowering, from May to September.

Plant description. Tormentil is a perennial herbaceous plant. The rhizome is multi-headed, tuberous, or short-cylindrical. Stems

erect or ascending, thin, branched at the top, 10—50 cm tall. Stem leaves sessile, ternate, with two large stipules, making the leaves appear five-fingered (palmate). Individual leaflets of the compound leaf are lanceolate or oblong-cuneate, coarsely serrate. Basal leaves ternate, less commonly dissected into 4 or 5 segments, long-petiolate, usually already withered by the time the plant flowers. Flowers regular, solitary, located on long, thin pedicels. The calyx is double, with four alternating outer and inner lobes. The corolla has four petals (very rarely five), golden-yellow with a red spot at the base of each petal. Stamens numerous (15—20). The fruit is dry, aggregate, containing many achenes. The plant propagates only by seeds.

Plant distribution in nature. It grows in light forests, forest clearings, cutovers, and along the edges of swamps. It is common, but mostly does not form continuous thickets. It prefers acidic, humus-poor, well-moistened soils.

Conservation measures for wild habitats during raw material harvesting. In natural conditions, the annual growth of rhizomes is very insignificant and usually does not exceed 0.5 g. Clear-cutting or wholesale harvesting of tormentil rhizomes is unacceptable. For regeneration, at least one well-developed plant must be left per every 1—2 m². Re-collection at the same site can be carried out only after 6—7 years.

Features of Medicinal plant raw material (MPRM) harvesting. Primary processing of raw material. Tormentil rhizomes are harvested during the plant's flowering period. The raw material is dug up, the aerial parts and thin adventitious roots are removed, and washed.

Basic rules for drying raw material. The raw material can be dried by natural and artificial methods. Natural drying: rhizomes are spread in a thin layer on racks outdoors or in a well-ventilated room. Artificial drying: the raw material is dried in dryers at a Temperature not exceeding 60 °C.

Bringing the dried raw material to standard condition. Remove accidental mineral and organic impurities from the raw material, as well as poorly cleaned rhizomes that have blackened on the fracture.

External characteristics of standard raw material. Rhizomes of indefinite shape, straight or curved, hard, heavy, with pitted traces of cut roots; 2—9 cm long and at least 0.5 cm thick. The color of the rhizomes externally ranges from reddish-brown to dark brown, and on the fracture from yellowish to reddish-brown. Odor faint, aromatic. Taste strongly astringent.

Signs of potential raw material rejection. Rhizomes blackened on the fracture and poorly cleaned, presence of organic and mineral impurities.

Recommendations for packaging and storage of MPRM. Dried rhizomes are packed in 30 kg bags. Store in a dry, well-ventilated room. The shelf life of the raw material is 4 years.

1. Medicinal plant raw material should be harvested during the period of maximum accumulation of BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE SUBSTANCES in the plant (the plant development phase is of utmost importance).

2. Harvest only specific plant parts (organs) that contain biologically active substances.

3. Conservation measures must be observed during harvesting.

4. Aerial PARTS OF THE plant should be collected only in dry weather after the

dew has dissipated.

5. Underground parts may be dug up even during damp weather, with some exceptions (plants whose roots are not washed).

6. Harvesting must be done carefully, avoiding the ingress of foreign impurities, contaminated plants, or those damaged by insects and fungal diseases into the collected raw material.

7. Medicinal plants should not be harvested near highways and railway tracks.

8. Only well-known plants should be gathered.

9. Poisonous plants must be collected separately from other species.

2.5. Drying of Medicinal Plant Raw Materials

Requirements for drying medicinal plant raw Materials

Drying is a method of preserving medicinal plant raw materials for a prolonged period to ensure the operation of the pharmaceutical industry and the pharmacy network. The shelf life of each dried raw material is specified in the relevant regulatory document.

Drying of medicinal plant materials must be carried out quickly, efficiently, and correctly. Quickly: start drying the raw material 1–2 hours after harvesting. Efficiently: maximally preserve biologically active substances, active components, and the appearance of the raw material. Correctly: maintain the appropriate temperature regime.

Enzymes and water contained in plant Cells most often cause the degradation of biologically active substances (with the exception of raw materials containing Essential Oils, which form biogenic stimulants). To quickly inactivate enzymes and remove moisture, the raw material is dried at a specific temperature. The drying temperature regime is established experimentally, taking into account the Chemical Composition and type of raw material:

— raw materials containing essential oils are dried in a thick layer (up to 15 cm) at a temperature of 25–40 °C, which prevents the evaporation of the oil and, moreover, allows its accumulation to continue during the drying process. For example, the raw material of valerian (Valeriana officinalis) develops a strong specific scent of essential oil after drying;

— raw materials containing Glycosides are dried at a temperature of 55–60 °C, spread in a thin layer. Under these conditions, enzymes are inactivated. To accelerate moisture evaporation, the raw material is periodically turned over;

— for vitamin-rich raw materials, the optimal temperature is 70–90 °C. They are spread in a thin layer and turned over during the drying process;

— most Other types of raw materials are dried at a temperature of 50–60 °C;

Methods of drying medicinal plant raw materials

Raw materials are dried using natural or artificial heat. Drying with natural heat is simple, inexpensive, and accessible, but depends on weather conditions. At night, the raw material must be covered or brought indoors. Natural heat drying can be sun-drying or shade-drying.

Sun-drying. This method is used for underground organs, bark, seeds, and certain fruits. Juicy berries such as blueberries, raspberries, and currants can be pre-wilted to accelerate subsequent drying and preserve quality. The raw material is spread on mats. It is forbidden to dry flowers, leaves, and herbs in the sun, as they change their natural color, fade, and turn brown due to the destruction of chlorophyll and pigments.

Shade-air drying. Most types of raw materials can be dried this way: flowers, leaves, and herbs. The raw material is spread under sheds on mats or nets in a thin layer, periodically and carefully turning it over.

Under natural heat conditions, raw materials can be dried in attics. The attic must be clean and preferably under a metal roof. It is equipped with racks, shelves, nets, or fabric-covered frames. A mandatory requirement is the presence of reliable ventilation and sufficient heating of the attic. The raw material is spread in a thin layer, taking into account temperature requirements. Materials requiring rapid drying (glycoside-containing) are placed higher up, while those requiring slow drying (essential oil-containing) are placed lower down.

Drying using artificial heating. This is carried out in special dryers where the temperature is regulated. The dryer is equipped with ventilation, so the drying process happens quickly as moist air is constantly replaced by fresh, dry air.

There are batch and continuous dryers. They can be stationary or portable. Stationary dryers are used to equip specialized farms and procurement-reception facilities. These dryers feature a drying chamber and an isolated heat source. A batch dryer consists of a chamber equipped with racks, ventilation, and heat supply pipes. The temperature is set according to the type of raw material and its chemical composition. After a certain period, the dried raw material is unloaded. A continuous dryer is equipped with a moving belt, which ensures that the raw material is turned over during drying and dries quickly. Fruit and vegetable dryers exist specifically for drying berries and fruits. Portable dryers come in various designs; they are often mounted on vehicles and moved to harvesting sites as needed.

Medicinal plant materials can be dried in traditional rural stoves, provided that care is taken to ensure the stove is not too hot and the raw material does not burn.

The end of the drying process is determined by breaking the raw material: bark, roots, stems, and the juiciest parts should not bend, but rather snap with a crack.

For each type of raw material, the permissible moisture content is indicated in the regulatory document, averaging 10–14 %.

There are specific requirements regarding the drying conditions for Different types of raw materials. All specific drying details are described in the relevant documents.

Basic rules of drying. Above-ground organs are not washed. Buds (birch, pine) are dried quickly at a moderate temperature, spread in a thin layer, and mixed. The bud scales contain resinous substances and essential oils, which, if dried slowly, may mold, discolor, and lose quality.

Bark contains less moisture and dries faster. However, during the drying process, it darkens because the Tannins in the bark oxidize and change color. When drying buckthorn bark, care must be taken to prevent one piece of bark's trough from nesting inside another, as this causes the inner surface of the buckthorn to turn black.

The leaves are spread out in a thin layer or individually (coltsfoot). Petioles are generally removed.

Flowers should ideally not be mixed during drying, so they are laid out in a thin layer. Stirring causes them to change color and break apart.

Herbs are spread in a thin layer and must be stirred carefully, as the stems bear leaves and flowers; therefore, the requirements are the same as for these individual raw materials.

Dry fruits and seeds (flax, fennel, anise) contain little moisture, so after harvesting they generally only need final drying.

Succulent fruits, such as raspberries, blueberries, and currants, are best withered in the sun first and then dried in dryers.

Underground organs are washed (except for marshmallow and licorice roots); they are first dried at a low temperature and then finished at a temperature suited to the content of active substances. This method ensures even drying.

Standardization is The process of bringing raw materials to a standard condition, i.e., meeting the requirements defined in analytical regulatory documentation.

If any minor flaws remain in the raw material after initial processing, they are addressed after drying. At the same time, any discolored, moldy, or crushed raw material, as well as mineral impurities, are removed.

Raw materials are sorted using vibrating screens, winnowers, shakers, and sorters. Soil, small stones, and crushed particles are sifted out through screens with a reciprocating set of sieves. Simultaneously, large impurities, bare stems from herbs, and other non-plant materials are removed. Fruits, berries, leaves, herbs, and roots are cleaned on screens. Seeds are sorted using winnowers-sorters and belt conveyors.

Moisture content must be determined during the standardization of raw materials. Dry raw materials are hygroscopic and can absorb moisture in rainy weather. Therefore, if necessary, they are dried further using a drying method appropriate for the specific type of raw material.

For each type of raw material, there are numerical quality indicators that standard raw materials must meet. Dry standard raw materials are packaged for subsequent storage.

2.7. Poisonous Plants and Safety Precautions for Handling Them

Out of the 300,000 plant species growing in various plant communities on Earth, about 700 can cause severe or even fatal complications. Their toxic properties, much like their beneficial ones, are determined by The Nature of the substances they contain (Alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, essential oils, etc.).

POISONOUS PLANTS represent a conventionally separated and artificially restricted group of plants containing significant amounts of plant toxins (Greek toxikon) that lead to poisoning (Latin venenum), causing illness or death in humans and animals (see Poisoning). Phytotoxicology is the scientific discipline dedicated to studying poisonous PLANTS AND THEIR toxins, closely tied to pharmacy, medicine, and forensic science. It aims to prevent poisonings, ensure human life safety, and protect public health. Phytotoxicology provides knowledge on the morphological features of poisonous plants, their geographic distribution, habitats, conditions under which poisoning may occur, clinical pictures, post-mortem changes, diagnostic methods, therapy, and Prevention. Most poisonous plants are simultaneously medicinal and serve as a source of raw materials for obtaining biologically active substances, medicines, insecticides, etc. To date, over 10,000 species of poisonous plants are known worldwide, with their number and toxicity increasing in tropical and subtropical regions. In the CIS territory, over 400 poisonous species grow, containing phytotoxins synthesized by the plant Organism for its defense and self-preservation. Throughout evolution, plants have developed numerous protective adaptations: The formation of a thick cuticle, succulence, a bitter or pungent taste, a harsh unpleasant odor, and the accumulation of excess repellent astringent, caustic, or viscous substances, poisonous milky sap, etc. Sometimes plants use End products of their METABOLISM for chemical defense against being eaten. For instance, Representatives of the genera Rumex L., Oxalis L., and Rheum L. accumulate up to 1.3% oxalic acid and oxalates in their leaves, which lead to profound Metabolic Disorders in the body. Chemical defense (as a primary plant adaptation) is driven by the synthesis of natural compounds such as essential oils, glycosides, alkaloids, glycoalkaloids, saponins, Antibiotics, phytoncides, resins, balsams, certain acids and their salts, tannins, etc. Most of these, in varying amounts, cause diverse specific pathological Changes in the Structure AND Functions of cells, Tissues, organs in humans and animals. However, plants also contain complex systems of

biologically active substances of various origins and biological actions. Summation or antagonism of the effects characteristic of each individual substance frequently occurs. In some cases, certain substances can sensitize the body to the effects of others. For example, thioglycosides, saponins, and certain alkaloids irritate the gastrointestinal tract, facilitating the more intensive absorption of Other toxins; the active substances of edible mushrooms of the genus Coprinus are insoluble in the gastrointestinal environment, but dissolve in alcohol and cause poisoning only when alcoholic beverages are consumed before meals. Certain toxins found in food and medicinal plants (e.g., ephedra, bracken, hemp-nettle, foxgloves) and conditionally edible mushrooms containing amatoxins (representatives of the genera Amanita, Chlorophyllum, Galerina, Lepiota) accumulate after repeated or prolonged consumption, leading to persistent and long-term disorders in many body systems. The accumulation of toxins in animal tissues causes toxicity in meat, milk, and other products. Cases of livestock poisoning from the oilcake of bitter almond and cotton seeds are well documented. Most phytotoxins enter the body orally and are absorbed into the bloodstream in the lower part of the Small Intestine; some enter the bloodstream directly and act more rapidly, while volatile substances act via the respiratory tract. Furthermore, phytotoxins (colins) can exert allelopathic effects through soil or air emissions and the decomposition of fallen leaves. For instance, the ROOT exudates of the eastern white pine contain nitrogenous compounds and organic acids (oxalic, glycolic, malonic, malic, aconitic); the roots of oak, small-leaved elm, and black locust release leucine, valine, Tryptophan, Lysine, and Arginine). The berries of bog bilberry (Vaccinium uliginosum L.) become poisonous due to the Condensation of toxic essential emissions from marsh Labrador tea on their surface. The most advanced and effective plant self-defense mechanism is considered to be a remote (warning) chemical strike, where phytotoxins are released into the environment and begin acting before the plant sustains any damage (e.g., Skin inflammation caused by volatile emissions of gas plants, toxins of poison sumac, toxicodendron, or marsh Labrador tea). Poisonings occur most frequently during the warm season, on hot days, and after rain. Local toxic effects on the skin and mucous membranes often result from contact with poisonous plants. For example, capsaicinoids in pungent peppers strongly irritate mucous membranes, while the stinging hairs of stinging nettle contain formic acid, urticin, and histamine, which cause dermatitis. Sometimes local lesions lead to systemic intoxication due to the high absorption of chemical compounds (e.g., daphnin and mezerein from mezereon cause severe skin Burns and convulsions). Certain poisonous plants increase skin sensitivity to UV or longer-wave radiation, causing hyperpigmentation and skin burns.

Such a photosensitizing effect is manifested through the external exposure to furocoumarins from psoralea, Siberian parsnip, bishop's weed, garden parsnip, and common fig, as well as through the internal consumption of St. John's wort herb, puncture vine, or animals eating buckwheat, millet, clover, etc. Individuals and animals with individual hypersensitivity, fair skin, blond Hair, and albinism are the most vulnerable.

The formation and quantitative content of toxins in poisonous plants can vary depending on geographical location, habitat, and environmental conditions such as climate, soil, and humidity (plants grown under water deficit conditions accumulate higher amounts of toxic nitrates and cyanides) and lighting (e.g., alkaloid accumulation processes in nightshades are more intensive at night, whereas essential oils accumulate in bright light; when southern poisonous plants are grown in the north, their toxicity decreases). Additionally, the quantitative content and partial Chemical composition of plant toxins depend on the season and phenophase (during the winter dormancy period, underground organs store the maximum amount of toxins) and the stage of ontogenesis (e.g., in hellebore, the first sprouts are the most toxic; in poppy, mustard, and glossy buckthorn, unripe fruits; in certain grasses and legumes, young shoots are saturated with cyanogenic substances). Phytotoxins are distributed evenly across all tissues of plant organs or localized in specialized structures (reservoirs, laticifers, trichomes, etc.). All organs of poisonous plants can be dangerous (e.g., in herb Paris, the berries are toxic to The Heart, the leaves to The Nervous system, the rhizomes cause vomiting, and the whole plant

possesses insecticidal properties). However, certain plant parts are most frequently the most poisonous (e.g., in mezereon—bark and fruits; in marsh Labrador tea—leaves; in poison hemlock—fruits; in greater celandine—root; in black henbane—leaves and seeds; in bittersweet nightshade—green parts of the plant). Seeds with a bitter taste and the sprouts of many pome fruits are protected by the cyanogenic glycoside amygdalin, the Hydrolysis of which yields benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid. Poisonous honey-producing plants are well known (e.g., genera Azalea, Ledum, Rhododendron, Chamaedaphne, Prunus laurocerasus, Daphne, Veratrum, Ranunculus, Hyoscyamus, Datura, Atropa, Nicotiana, Gratiola, Anabasis, Paris, Stellaria, Aconitum, Nerium, etc.) with toxic nectar or flower pollen, the presence of which renders honey toxic and can cause fever, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Occasionally, certain parts of poisonous plants are non-poisonous (e.g., potato tubers, yew arils, opium poppy seeds). Fresh poisonous plants are the most dangerous. After drying, heat Treatment, or ensiling, the toxic properties of plants are either retained, diminished, or rarely disappear entirely. Plant poisonings mostly occur as food-borne or alimentary intoxications of a general resorptive nature. Most frequently, this happens when unfamiliar plants or mushrooms are consumed; after ingesting unsafe food products (e.g., compotes, jams, or tinctures made from stone fruit pits containing amygdalin stored for over a year); or As a result of consuming grain or flour contaminated with ergot sclerotia, corn cockle, darnel, henbane, heliotrope, trichodesma seeds, etc. Another cause of Acute Poisoning is self-medication, improper use, and overdosing of preparations derived from lily of the valley, foxglove, pheasant's eye, valerian, hellebore, schisandra, ginseng, belladonna, male fern, aconites, etc. Aqueous extracts from plants containing potent substances are prepared exclusively in pharmacies. Preparing infusions or decoctions at home from species such as broadleaf ragwort, Carniolan scopolia, Japanese pagoda tree, lanceleaf thermopsis, shrubby securinega, globe thistle, smooth stephania, ipecac, poison calabar bean, strychnine tree, net-fruited delphinium, lobed nightshade, etc., is strictly unacceptable. In therapeutic doses, most poisonous plants and their toxins are used as medicines (e.g., cardiac glycosides from foxglove and lily of the valley, atropine from henbane, morphine from poppy). Failure to observe storage conditions, methods, schedules, and dosages of consumption, or ignoring warnings regarding interactions with other drugs, leads to poisoning by potent and narcotic drugs or pathologies (nicotinism, cocainism, morphinism). Occupational respiratory-contact poisonings are also possible among workers in the pharmaceutical, chemical, tobacco, woodworking industries during the cultivation, harvesting, procurement, and processing of plant raw materials (hops, tobacco, hemp, belladonna, hellebore, celandine, buttercup, red pepper, etc.) and during the treatment or chemical processing of wood (all conifers, toxicodendron, oak, beech, yew, alder, horse chestnut, robinia, spindle trees, etc.). Nicotine poisoning occurs in workers handling raw tobacco leaves or from nicotine overdose during smoking, causing respiratory paralysis and nervous system excitation followed by depression. Household respiratory poisonings (malaise, dizziness, headaches) can be caused by volatile substances resulting from prolonged exposure to thickets or large bouquets of magnolias, lilies, hyacinths, bird cherry, and poppies. Certain species of poisonous plants affect various animal organisms differently. For instance, belladonna is poisonous to humans and harmless to rabbits; humans consume caraway, dill, and anise fruits, whereas birds die from them. As a rule, animals avoid or refuse to eat poisonous plants.

The Classification of poisonous plants is conditional, as no universal classification exists. Today, poisonous plants are grouped based on the following characteristics: botanical affiliation, mode of action, degree of toxicity, nature of toxins and their chemical Specificity, clinical picture of the toxic action, morphopathological and pathoanatomical changes, and several others.

The botanical classification of poisonous plants is based on modern phylogenetic systems of the plant world and takes into account the Specific features of Secondary Metabolism. The highest number of poisonous plants is found among flowering dicotyledonous plants (families Solanaceae, Ranunculaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Apocynaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Papaveraceae, etc.). They are also present in cyanobacteria

and certain Fungi (e.g., genus Amanita, Claviceps purpurea). Among all plant toxins, the alkaloids of flowering plants are the most active, complex, and species-specific. Alkaloids are virtually absent in bryophytes, pteridophytes, and Algae; certain horsetail species contain pseudoalkaloids. The chemotaxonomic specificity of plant organisms makes certain groups of phytotoxins diagnostic markers for specific botanical taxa. Although botanical classification does not provide insight into the chemical nature and Clinical significance of the active substances found in poisonous plants, it helps prevent poisonings caused by lesser-known plants belonging to specific taxonomic groups.

According to their mode of action, poisonous plants and phytotoxins are divided into contact toxins, which cause harm upon Touch; respiratory or remote toxins, inhaled as volatile compounds; respiratory-contact toxins; direct bloodstream toxins (e.g., curare); and general resorptive or alimentary toxins, which pass through the gastrointestinal tract and are absorbed into the bloodstream in its various sections.

Based on their degree of toxicity, groups are distinguished into very poisonous, deadly poisonous, and unconditionally poisonous plants (marked in the provided list). However, authors' views regarding the representation within these groups do not always coincide. Conditionally poisonous plants are considered to be those that become toxic only in certain regions or growing conditions due to changes in chemical composition (accumulation of oxalates, selenium, heavy metals, radioactive elements, cyanides, etc.); improper storage (the toxic glycoalkaloid solanine accumulates in potato tubers that have turned green in the light or overwintered in the soil); or infection by fungi

or Bacteria (moldy darnel grass—Lolium L., cereal grains infected by the parasitic fungus Stromatinia temulenta, etc.). Among conditionally poisonous plants, groups are distinguished that cause poisoning by oxalates (oxalism), selenium (selenosis), cyanides, nitrates, etc.

Oxalism is most frequently caused by: redroot pigweed or prince's feather, purslane, Black Sea rhubarb, and certain species of the genera wood sorrel, foxtail, pigweed, goosefoot, beet, millet, sorrel, saltwort, and others. Signs of oxalism include gastroenteritis, hypotension, hypocalcemia, Muscle weakness and twitching, nephrosis, and hyperoxaluria. Selenosis occurs in cattle when they ingest plants that have absorbed excess selenium from the soil (e.g., species of the genera Robinia, Aster, Atriplex, Castilleja, Grindelia, Iva, Morinda, Neptunia, etc.) or act as selenium indicators (e.g., species of Astragalus).

Cyanide poisoning is most commonly caused by hydrogen cyanide released from fungicides or insecticides, as well as the consumption of plants containing cyanogenic compounds (such as columbine, Blood-red sundew, osteospermum, loquat, manna grass, woolly honey grass, European elder, lima bean, Australian indigo, white clover, garden pea, and certain

representatives of the genera *Robinia*, *Atriplex*, *Cyperus*, *Eschscholzia*, *Eucalyptus*, *Euphorbia*, *Lotus*, *Linum*, *Nerium*, *Panicum*, *Passiflora*, *Prunus cerasifera*, *Prunus spinosa*, *Pyrus*, *Sorghum*, etc.). Cyanides act rapidly and potently, causing nausea, dizziness, convulsions, and death due to respiratory paralysis.

Nitrate poisoning, which in humans and ruminants is converted into nitrites within the body, occurs upon the consumption of plants naturally rich in nitrates (such as *Atriplex alba*, *Salvia reflexa*, members of the genus *Amaranthus*, and others) or those over-fertilized. Symptoms include gastroenteritis, diarrhea, life-threatening methemoglobinemia with anemic anoxia, asphyxia, tremors,

and cyanosis.

The chemical classification of toxic plants accounts for the Chemical Nature of the toxic substances. Plants are categorized into those containing alkaloids, glycoalkaloids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, toxic organic acids (hydrocyanic, oxalic), tannins, lactones, resins and balsams, terpenoids, essential oils, Phenolic Compounds that may cause gastrointestinal inflammation (such as gossypol, hypericin, etc.), and toxalbumins—protein-like substances that induce antibody formation and render the organism resistant (immune) to toxic and lethal amounts of these substances (e.g., ricin from castor bean seeds, robin

from the bark of black locust). A separate group comprises plants that produce toxins (hydrocyanic acid, lower nitrogen oxides) or accumulate radionuclides and heavy metals only under specific conditions. Among the important Chemical factors of poisoning is lethal metabolism. For example, in The Stomach, the glycoside vicianin is initially hydrolyzed into glucose and divicine, which breaks down into hydrocyanic acid, thereby intensifying intoxication.

Classification of toxic plants based on pathological changes in the organism only partially reflects their specific effects, since in most cases the post-mortem picture is characteristic of general toxicosis.

Classification of toxic plants based on the clinical picture of poisoning is useful for establishing a Diagnosis and determining effective treatment regimens. It is closely related to botanical and chemical classifications: poisonings caused by plants related systematically or by chemical composition exhibit similar clinical presentations. For instance, poisonings manifested clinically by pulmonary edema are most frequently caused by plants of the Brassicaceae family; poisonings presenting with respiratory distress—by plants of the Poaceae family; and cardiac impairment—by species containing cardiac glycosides. The clinical picture of poisonings by atropine alkaloids differs from that observed in poisonings by plants containing morphine. However, it should be taken into account that the clinical picture of plant poisonings reflects the action not of pure substances, but of a sum of biologically active substances with varying quantitative ratios across different plants. They do not always act in the same direction, and individual components may even exert opposing effects. Furthermore, The Nature and intensity of the action of each substance and their combination depend on internal and external conditions. Therefore, the clinical picture of poisoning by plants of the same species is not identical in all cases.

Classification by the nature of their effect on the organism distinguishes toxic plants that affect: the Central Nervous System (species of the genera *Veratrum*, *Aconitum*, *Hyoscyamus*, *Atropa*, *Conium*, *Cicuta*, *Datura*, *Cannabis*, *Nicotiana*, *Lathyrus*, *Chelidonium*, *Strychnos*, etc.); The Cardiovascular system (species of *Helleborus*, *Convallaria*, *Digitalis*, *Dryopteris*, *Senecio*, *Veratrum*, *Nerium*, *Securinega*, *Rhaponticum carthamoides*, etc.); the respiratory tract (species of *Bryonia*, *Strychnos nux-vomica*, *Cytisus scoparius*, *Colchicum*, *Cannabis*, etc.); the gastrointestinal tract (species of the genera *Colchicum*, *Daphne*, *Ricinus*, *Armoracia*, *Frangula*, *Euphorbia*, *Solanum*, *Thermopsis*,

Dryopteris, *Atriplex*, etc.); the Liver (Armoracia rusticana, *Raphanus sativus* var. *niger*, species of the genera

Heliotropium, *Senecio*, etc.); the Urinary System (Asparagus officinalis, *Solidago virgaurea*, *Oxalis acetosella*, *Levisticum officinale*, *Juniperus communis*, *Bryonia alba*, *Allium sativum*, etc.); the skin and mucous membranes (species of the genera *Heracleum*, *Ruta*, *Urtica*, *Hypericum*, *Dictamnus*, *Armoracia*, *Capsicum*, *Cyclamen*, *Pastinaca*, *Phytolacca*, *Cynanchum*, *Cimicifuga*, *Chelidonium*, *Sinapis*, *Euphorbia*, *Tanacetum*, *Rhus*, *Scilla*, *Bryonia*, *Tamus*, *Croton*, etc.). Many species simultaneously cause toxic damage to multiple organs or body systems.

Toxic plants grow everywhere, but most frequently and in the greatest variety in meadows and pastures, and less commonly in forests. They are characteristic of many families:

2.7.1. Highly Toxic Medicinal Plants

1. Gratiola officinalis - Gratiola officinalis L.

2. Aconitum excelsum - Aconitum exelsum Rohb.

3. Aconitum soongaricum - Aconitum soongaricum Stap.

4. Anabasis aphylla - Anabasis aphylla L.

5. Arisaema serratum - Arisaemaserratum (Thunb/) Schott.

6. Hyoscyamus niger - Белена черная Hyoscyamus niger L.

7. Ligustrum vulgare - Бирючина обыкновенная Ligustrum vulgare L.

8. Conium maculatum - Болиголов пятнистый Conium maculatum L.

9. Heracleum sibiricum - Борщевик сибирский Heracleum sibiricum L.

10. Heracleum sosnowskyi - Борщевик Сосновского Heracleum sosnowsky Manden.

11. Maianthemum bifolium - Майник двулистный Convallaria bifolia L.

12. Cnicus benedictus - Волчец кудрявый Cnicus benedictus L.

13. February daphne - Daphne mezereum L.

14. Baneberry - Actaea spicata L.

15. Herb paris - Paris quadrifolia L.

16. Pheasant's eye - Adonis vernalis L.

17. Downy thornapple - Datura innoxia Mill.

18. Jimsonweed - Datura stramonium L.

19. Meadow buttercup - Ranunculus acris L.

20. Creeping buttercup - Ranunculus repens L.

21. Celery-leaved buttercup - Ranunculus sceleratus L.

22. Deadly nightshade - Atropa belladonna L.

23. Angular solomon's seal - Polygonatum officinale L.

24. Lily of the valley - Convallaria majalis L.

25. Swallow-wort - Vincetoxicum hirundinaria Medik.

26. Indian tobacco - Lobelia inflata L.

27. Opium poppy - Papaver somniferum L.

28. Autumn mandrake - Mandragora officinalis L.

29. Sun spurge - Euphorbia helioscopia L.

30. Fly agaric - Amanita muscaria (Fr.) Hook.

31. Greater stonecrop - Hylotelephium maximum (L.) Holub.

32. Hepatica - Hepatica nobilis Mill.

33. Fir clubmoss - Lycopodium selago L.

34. Stag's-horn clubmoss - Lycopodium clavatum L.

35. Mayapple - Podophyllum peltatum Willd.

36. Woronow's snowdrop - Galanthus woronowii A.Los.

37. Autumn crocus - Colchicum autumnale L.

38. Castor bean - Ricinus communis L.

39. Hollow-root - Corydalis cava (L.) Schweigg. et Koerte

40. Viper's bugloss - Echium vulgare L.

41. Syrenia - Syrenia siliculosa (Bieb.) Andrz.

42. Eastern pasqueflower - Pulsatilla patens (L.) Mill.

43. Kombe strophanthus - Strophanthus kombe Oliv.

44. Poison sumac - Rhus toxicodendron var. hispida Engl.

45. Tanner's sumach - Rhus coriaria L.

46. Poison ivy - Rhus toxicodendron L.

47. Black bryony - Tamus communis L.

48. Lance-leaved thermopsis - Thermopsis lanceolata L.

49. Persian cyclamen - Cyclamen persicum Mill.

50. Cowbane - Cicuta virosa L.

51. Hellebore - Veratrum lobelianum Bernh.

52. Caucasian hellebore - Helleborus caucasicus A.Braun.

53. Hound's-Tongue - Cynoglossum officinale L.

54. Strychnine tree - Strychnos nux-vomica L.

55. Hedge woundwort - Stachys sylvatica L.

56. Greater celandine - Chelidonium majus L.

57. Caucasian dittany - Dictamnus albus var. caucasicus (Fisch.et C.A. Mey) Rouy

2.7.2. Poisonous medicinal plants

1. Black locust - Robinia pseudoacacia L.

2. Siberian peashrub - Caragana arborescens Lam.

3. Yellow wood anemone - Anemone ranunculoides L.

4. Lords and ladies - Arum maculatum L.

5. Lesser periwinkle - Vinca minor L.

6. Marsh Labrador tea - Ledum palustris L.

7. Lady fern - Antyrium filix-femina (L.) Roth.

8. Marsh grass of Parnassus - Parnassia palustris L.

9. Field bindweed - Convolvulus arvensis L.

10. European spindle - Euonymus verrucosus Scop.

11. Spindle tree - Euonymus europaeus L.

12. Dwarf elder - Sambucus ebulus L.

13. Lilac - Syringa vulgaris L.

14. European columbine - Aquilegia vulgaris L.

15. Common bugloss - Anchusa officinalis L.

16. Cornflower - Centaurea cyanus L.

17. Bog-myrtle - Galepa Lustris (Lamk.) Chevall.

18. Crownvetch - Coronilla varia L.

19. Syrian rue - Peganum harmala L.

20. European heliotrope - Heliotropium europaeum L.

21. Yellow water-lily - Nuphar lutea (L.) Smith.

22. Candle larkspur - Delphinium elatum L.

23. Delphinium dictyocarpum - Delphinium dictyocarpum DC

24. Yellow rattle - Rhinanthus minor L.

25. Dyer's greenweed - Genistra tinctoria L.

26. Jointed ephedra - Ephedra equsetina Bunge

27. Red hemp-nettle - Galeopsis ladanum L.

28. Common comfrey - Symphytum officinale L.

29. Treacle mustard - Erysimum cheiranthoides L.

30. Grey treacle-mustard - Желтушник серый (раскидистый) Erysimum diffusum Ehrh.

31. Russian broom - Ракитник русский Chamaecytisus ruthenicus (Fisch. tx Woloszcz.) Klaskova

32. Marsh marigold - Калужница болотная Caltha palustris L.

33. Hoary cress - Кардария крупковидная Cardaria draba (L.)Desf.

34. Garlic mustard - Чесночник лекарственный Alliaria petiolata (Bieb.)Cavara et Grande.

35. Dahurian bugbane - Клопогон даурский Cimicifuga dahurica (Turcz.) Maxim.

36. Coca bush - Кокаиновый куст Erythroxylon coca Lam.

37. Cultivated hemp - Конопля посевная Cannabis sativa L.

38. Indian hemp - Конопля посевная индийская Cannabis indica Lam.

39. European wild ginger - Копытень европейский Asarum europaeum L.

40. Butterbur - Белокопытник лекарственный Petasites hybridus (L.) P. Gaertn.,B.Mey. et Scherb

41. Corn cockle - Куколь обыкновенный Agrostemma githago L.

42. American pokeweed - Лаконос американский Phytolacca americana L.

43. European white water-lily - Кувшинка белая Nymphaea alba L.

44. Common soapwort - Мыльнянка лекарственная Saponaria officinalis L.

45. Bladder senna - Пузырник древовидный Colutea arborescens L.

46. Large yellow foxglove - Наперстянка крупноцветковая Digitalis grandiflora Mill.

47. Purple foxglove - Наперстянка пурпуровая Digitalis purpurea L.

48. Fringe-petalled foxglove - Наперстянка реснитчатая Digitalis ciliata Trautv.

49. Rusty foxglove - Наперстянка ржавая Digitalis ferruginea L.

50. Woolly foxglove - Наперстянка шерстистая Digitalis lanata Ehrh.

51. Rough cocklebur - Дурнишник обыкновенный Xanthium strumarium L.

52. Silk vine - Обвойник греческий Periploca graeca L.

53. Wild calla - Белокрыльник болотный Calla palustris L.

54. Oleander - Олеандр обыкновенный Nerium oleandr L.

55. Fine-leaved water dropwort - Oenanthe aquatica (L.) Poir.

56. European mistletoe - Viscum album L.

57. Scarlet pimpernel - Anagallis arvensis L.

58. Syrian bean-caper - Zygophyllum fabago L.

59. Kangaroo apple - Solanum laciniatum Ait.

60. Bittersweet nightshade - Solanum dulcamara L.

61. Black nightshade - Solanum nigrum L.

62. Purple passionflower - Passiflora incarnata L.

63. Cowslip primrose - Primula veris L.

64. Cow-wheat - Melampyrum nemorosum L.

65. White bryony - Bryonia alba L.

66. Common ivy - Hedera helix L.

67. Greater dodder - Cuscuta europaea L.

68. Drupaceous cullen - Cullen drupaceum (Bunge) Stirton.

69. Common figwort - Scrophularia nodosa L.

70. Serpent wood - Rauwolfia serpentina Benth.

71. Hybrid roemeria - Roemeria hybrida (L.)DC.

72. Common agrimony - Agrimonia eupatoria L.

73. Common sickle-weed - Falcaria vulgaris Bernth.

74. Yellow azalea - Rhododendron luteum Sweet

75. Round-leaved sundew - Drosera rotundifolia L.

76. Stinking meadow-rue - Thalictrum foetidum L.

77. Yellow meadow-rue - Thalictrum flavum L.

78. Lesser meadow-rue - Thalictrum minus L.

79. European scopolia - Scopolia carniolica Jacq.

80. Forking larkspur - Consolida regalis S.F.Gray.

81. Ostrich fern - Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Tod.

82. Alkali seepweed - Spherophysa salsula (Pall.) DC.

83. English yew - Taxus baccata L.

84. Common tobacco - Nicotiana tabacum L.

85. Ordeal bean - Physostigma venenosum Balf.

86. Leatherleaf - Chamaedaphne calyculata (L.) Moench.

87. Narrowleaf cottonbush - Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.)R.Br.

88. European birthwort - Aristolochia clematitis L.

89. Roadside pepperweed - Lepidium ruderale L.

90. European water-plantain - Alisma plantago-aquatica L.

91. Marsh lousewort - Pedicularis palustris L.

92. Male fern - Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott

93. Savin juniper - Juniperus sabina L.

94. Puncturevine - Tribulus terrestris L.

2.7.3. Conditionally poisonous medicinal plants

1. Bishop's weed - Ammi majus L.

2. Mountain arnica - Arnica montana L.

3. Oriental beech - Fagus orientalis Lipsky

4. White sweet clover - Mellilotus albus L.

5. Yellow sweet clover - Mellilotus officinalis L.

6. Thick-fruited sophora - Sophora pachycarpa C.A.Mey.

7. Honey locust - Gleditsia triacanthos L.

8. Water pepper - Polygonum hydropiper L.

9. Russian knapweed - Acroptilon repens (L.) DC.

10. Sareptian mustard - Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.

11. Southern globethistle - Echinops ritro L.

12. Tufted vetch - Vicia cracca L.

13. Smooth rupturewort - Herniaria glabra L.

14. Common yarrow - Achillea millefolium L.p.p.

15. High echinopanax - Echinopanax elatus Nakai.

16. Common broom - Cytisus scoparius Link.

17. European fly honeysuckle - Lonicera xylosteum L.

18. Woodland ragwort - Senecio nemorensis L.

19. Common groundsel - Senecio vulgaris L.

20. Broadleaf ragwort - Senecio platyphylloides Somm.et Levier

21. Rhombic-leaved ragwort - Senecio rhombifolius (Willd.) Sch.Bip

22. European goldenrod - Solidago virgaurea L.

23. Bitter candytuft - Iberis amara L.

24. Potato - Solanum tuberosum L.

25. Horse chestnut - Aesculus hippocastanum L.

26. Indian hemp - Apocynum cannabinum L.

27. Gmelin's statice - Limonium Gmelinii (Willd.) Kuntze

28. Alder buckthorn - Frangula alnus Mill.

29. Buckthorn purge - Rhamnus cathartica L.

30. Prickly lettuce - Lactuca sativa L.

31. Wormseed goosefoot - Chenopodium anthelminthicum L.

32. Old man's beard - Clematis vitalba L.

33. Panicled baby's-breath - Gypsophila paniculata L.

34. Common flax - Linum usitatissimum L.

35. Common toadflax - Льнянка обыкновенная Linaria vulgaris Mill.

36. Southern magnolia - Магнолия крупноцветковая Magnolia grandiflora L.

37. Sweet woodruff - Ясменник душистый Asperula odorata L.

38. Yellow horned poppy - Мачок желтый Glaucium flavum Crantz.

39. Almond - Миндаль обыкновенный Amygdalus communis L.

40. Flat sea holly - Синеголовник плосколистный Eryngium planum L.

41. Dahurian moonseed - Луносемянник даурский Menispermum dahuricum L.

42. Bearberry - Толокнянка обыкновенная Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng

43. Mouse-ear hawkweed - Ястребинка волосистая Hieracium pilosella L.

44. Squirting cucumber - Бешеный огурец обыкновенный Ecballinum elaterum (L.) A.Rich.

45. Short-necked sedge - Осока парвская Carex brevicollis D.C.

46. Tansy - Пижма обыкновенная Tanacetum vulgare L.

47. Short-styled peony - Пион уклоняющийся Paeonia anomala L.

48. Wormwood - Полынь горькая Artemisia absinthium L.

49. Taurian wormwood - Полынь таврическая Artemisia taurica Willd.

50. Levant wormseed - Полынь цитварная Artemisia cina Berg.

51. Ground-ivy - Будра плющевидная Glechoma hederacea L.

52. Common fumitory - Дымянка аптечная Fumaria officinalis L.

53. Rue - Рута душистая Ruta graveolens L.

54. Securinega - Секуринега полукустарниковая Securinega suffruticosa (Pall.)Rehd.

55. Bladder campion - Смолевка поникшая Silene vulgaris (Moench.) Carcke

56. Johnsongrass - Сорго аллепское Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.

57. Japanese pagoda tree - Софора японская Sophora japonica L.

58. Stellera - Стеллера карликовая Stellera chamaejasme L.

59. Common self-heal - Черноголовка обыкновенная Pronella vulgaris L.

60. Marsh arrowgrass - Triglochin palustris Linnaeus

61. Northern white-cedar - Thuja occidentalis L.

62. Sweet violet - Viola odorata L.

63. Horsetails - Equisetum L.

64. Common hop - Humulus lupulus L.

65. Bird cherry - Padus racemosa Gilib.

66. Meadow vetchling - Lathyrus pratensis L.

67. Saffron crocus - Crocus sativus L.

68. Compact dock - Rumex confertus Willd.

69. European ash - Fraxinus excelsior L.

The toxicity of various plants can vary depending on the species' geographical distribution, ecological factors, soil characteristics and habitat, growing season, climatic conditions, stage of ontogeny, and phenophase. Overcast weather or growing plants in shaded conditions may increase their alkaloid content. In nightshades, the accumulation of alkaloids is most intense at night, making plants more toxic in the morning than at the end of the day.

2.8. Guidelines for Handling Toxic Medicinal Plant Materials

Toxic plants are plants that produce and accumulate poisonous substances capable of causing poisoning in humans and animals. The toxicity of plants may be associated with such poisonous compounds as alkaloids, glycosides, essential oils, lactones, phenols, etc. Toxic substances may be contained in the entire plant or in its individual parts.

The harvesting of toxic medicinal plants is strictly prohibited for: minors; pregnant women; nursing mothers; individuals with central nervous system disorders; patients with cardiovascular diseases, etc.

The rules for harvesting plants of individual morphological groups of medicinal plant materials (toxic ones) are the same as for non-toxic ones. However, there are certain specific precautions: while harvesting toxic materials, one must not eat or touch the mucous membranes of the eyes and Mouth with hands; when gathering toxic materials, one should stand upwind. When working with toxic materials, it is necessary to protect the mucous membranes of the Nose and mouth, and wear special protective clothing. Cases of occupational poisoning are well-documented. Medicinal plant collectors may develop acute inflammation, eczema, or dermatitis upon contact with toxic plants or when their sap gets on the skin; cases of poisoning are known during manual harvesting in hot weather of black henbane, Jimson weed, belladonna, as well as during the grinding of dried rhizomes of white hellebore, etc. When working with coriander fruits and mint leaves, workers may experience headaches, general weakness, and dizziness due to the inhalation of essential oil vapors.

The effects of toxic plants are diverse. Some of them affect the central nervous system, others irritate the mucous membranes of the digestive tract, cause cardiac and respiratory disorders, urinary system dysfunctions, Pregnancy pathologies, miscarriages, etc. Acute poisoning can very rapidly lead to the disruption of the body's primary vital functions.

Plant poisonings mostly occur as foodborne or alimentary intoxications. Toxic effects resulting from the inhalation of poisonous emissions (distant poisoning caused by marsh Labrador tea, aroids, conifers, etc.) are less common. In addition, contact injuries to the skin and mucous membranes can occur, presenting as allergic reactions (stinging nettle, mustard, spurge, poison hemlock, certain primroses). There are also respiratory-contact poisonings that occur during the cultivation, harvesting, and processing of plant materials (henbane, tobacco, hellebore, buttercups, red pepper, celandine, etc.).

2.8.1. First Aid and Prevention of Plant Poisoning

In case of poisoning by medicinal plants, first aid must be administered immediately. In the event of gastrointestinal poisoning, vomiting should be induced and the stomach washed out (have the victim drink 5–6 cups of warm salted water or a 0.1% potassium permanganate solution). Emetics are ineffective in poppy poisoning. In cases of poisoning by lily of the valley, foxglove, or spring pheasant's eye, vomiting must not be induced. To prevent the absorption of the poison, activated charcoal or a mixture of 1–3 egg whites with 300–500 ml of milk or water should be administered, followed in 20–30 minutes by induced vomiting and a laxative. The victim should be put to bed while awaiting the doctor. If toxic plant sap gets on the skin, the affected areas are washed thoroughly with soap and water and wiped with a 2% potassium permanganate solution. If breathing becomes depressed, artificial Respiration is performed; if the pulse weakens, the victim is given strong tea or coffee.

Memorize the appearance and diagnostic features of poisonous plants.

2.9. Weed and Ruderal Vegetation

Weeds are plants that are not cultivated by humans, having adapted to grow among crops and causing them damage.

Weeds reduce the yield and quality of all crops, significantly decrease soil fertility, increase moisture evaporation, and accelerate the onset of soil drought. Biological, morphological, and Ecological features of weeds include:

- high fertility and intensive reproduction (for example, the number of vegetative buds in creeping thistle reaches 180 million, in couch grass up to 250 million, and each careless weed plant produces about 500,000–700,000 seeds);

- long-term seed germination capacity (38 years in fat hen, 52 years in field bindweed);

- variable seed dormancy periods (e.g., the dormancy period of shepherd's purse seeds ranges from 3 to 10 years, whereas in cultivated plants this period is absent or reduced to 1-2 years);

- intensive Dispersal of fruits and seeds due to various adaptations, such as low seed weight, pappi, hooks, crests, etc.;

- universal adaptability to diverse environmental conditions, tolerance to drastic temperature fluctuations, and The Development of a robust root system, among other traits.

A vast number of weed species (up to 1,500) are classified into the following groups based on their principal morphological and ecological characteristics:

Non-parasitic ^

I I

Annual and biennial

- Ephemerals

- Poisonous

- Winter annuals

- Winter weeds

- Biennials

Plants ^ Parasitic

I I

Parasites Hemiparasites

- Stem - Root

- Root

Perennials

- Fibrous-rooted

- Taprooted

- Bulbous and tuberous

- Creeping

- Root-suckering

Depending on their habitat conditions, weeds are subdivided into segetal weeds, which grow in regularly cultivated and fertile soils (such as perennial sow thistle, field bindweed, couch grass, field larkspur, field horsetail, pigweed, common lambsquarters, shepherd's purse, and common chickweed), and ruderal weeds, which occur on uncultivated soils, waste grounds, roadsides, farmyards, and backyards, often forming dense thickets. These are further divided into roadside weeds (such as dandelion, greater plantain, and knotweed) and wasteland weeds (such as stinging nettle, greater burdock, mugwort, and Canadian fleabane).

greater plantain, and knotweed) and wasteland weeds (such as stinging nettle, greater burdock, mugwort, and Canadian fleabane).

According to another biological classification based on the nature and method of Nutrition and the duration of The life cycle, weeds are divided into parasites (such as broomrape and dodder species), semi-parasites (common cow-wheat, European mistletoe), and herbs

with an independent mode of nutrition.

Based on their lifespan, weeds are categorized into annuals (common ragweed, shepherd's purse, common lambsquarters), biennials (wild carrot, yellow rocket, greater burdock), and perennials. The latter are further subdivided into taproot perennials (dandelion), fibrous-rooted perennials (greater plantain), rhizomatous perennials (creeping couch grass, field horsetail), and root-suckering perennials (creeping thistle, field bindweed).

A subgroup of particularly noxious weeds that spread rapidly and massively, causing significant economic damage, consists of quarantine weeds—species that are not native to the country's territory but rather introduced from elsewhere. Examples include dodder species and common ragweed, the latter of which triggers allergic reactions in many people during its flowering period. Weeds are managed using specialized preventive measures (such as cleaning planting material and implementing proper crop rotations) as well as eradication methods: chemical (using herbicides), mechanical (weeding), and biological (utilizing insects and nematodes).

2.10. Indoor Plants

Indoor plants originate from tropical and subtropical regions, where they thrive in diverse yet consistently optimal climatic conditions. They grow in humid and warm areas or, conversely, in dry and hot regions, at varying elevations, within shaded forests, or across sun-drenched savannas. To ensure your houseplants bring you lasting joy, it is essential to understand their origins and the conditions required for their normal growth.

Living and Growing Conditions

The Temperature Factor

Depending on their origin, we divide indoor plants into 3 groups: plants of warm, cool, and cold indoor environments. Plants native to warm environments originate from the tropics worldwide and therefore require a minimum temperature of 18 °C and a maximum of 25 °C. Cool rooms accommodate plants from subtropical or temperate zones, which thrive at temperatures ranging approximately from 12 to 18 °C. Finally, there are plants that require cool to cold conditions, developing best at temperatures no lower than 4 °C and no higher than 12 °C. Temperature plays a crucial role in plant care, as both heat deficiency and excess can cause severe damage.

The Light Factor

Sunlight is essential for plants to undergo assimilation—the process by which living organisms convert nutrients into organic matter. A plant absorbs carbon dioxide from the air and splits it into oxygen and carbon; CARBOHYDRATES (such as sugar and starch) are then synthesized from water and carbon absorbed through the roots under The Influence of sunlight. This assimilation process, known as Photosynthesis, can only occur in the presence of light thanks to chlorophyll formed within the cells. Based on this factor, plants are divided into three major groups:

1) plants of sunny locations (growing naturally in steppes and high-altitude regions);

2) plants of semi-shaded locations (growing naturally in forest clearings and meadows);

3) plants of shaded locations (growing naturally in deciduous forests).

The Air Factor

Air is a mixture of gases: approximately 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.9 percent inert gases (such as argon and helium), 0.03 percent carbon dioxide, along with trace amounts of other substances. Like humans, plants cannot live without air; however, unlike humans, whose respiration relies on oxygen,

plants require carbon dioxide. To ensure a supply of quality air for plants, it must be constantly renewed. Drafts should be avoided, as increased Transpiration makes plants more vulnerable to pests. Wind plays a vital role in natural air Circulation.

The Water Factor

Depending on weather conditions, the atmosphere contains varying amounts of moisture, commonly referred to as humidity. Seawater evaporates driven by solar heat and rises as vapor, where it condenses and partially falls back into the sea as precipitation (the small water cycle), while the remainder is carried by winds over land. In nature, the moisture required by plants is supplied by the water retained in the soil. For most plants, water with a hardness level ranging from 8 to 12 °GH (German hardness degrees) is suitable. 1 °GH corresponds to a content of 10 milligrams of calcium per 1,000 liters of water.

Plant Nutrition

Scientific discoveries and empirical data show that In addition to light, water, and carbon dioxide, plants require not only nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for survival, but also other substances and micronutrients: overall, a plant needs between 10 and 13 chemical elements for proper development. These nutrients must be supplied in the correct proportions and at the right time. Nitrogen is a primary component of protein; a nitrogen deficiency stunts plant growth, yet an excess can also be harmful. Phosphorus promotes bud and Flower Formation as well as the ripening of the plant and its seeds. Potassium enables maturation, enhances hardiness, and increases Disease resistance. Iron is necessary for chlorophyll synthesis and growth, and it is concentrated in the green parts of the plant.

Soil and Substrates

Depending on the plant's origin, various types of garden soil components (such as sand, clay, humus, and lime) are used for cultivation; a distinction is made between alkaline and water-insoluble soils (such as clay). These contain mineral and organic fractions as well as soil bacteria. Soils are broadly divided into two main groups: mineral and humus-based. The general term "substrate" (nutrient-rich growing medium or base) is frequently used to refer to all soil mixtures—whether primary, auxiliary, or supplementary. Soil properties are determined by its humus content, and alongside all these factors, the soil acidity level (pH value) is of critical importance.

Fertilizers

Depending on their species and genus, plants require varying amounts of fertilizer. Soil mixes typically contain initial fertilizers, but this is considered a one-time feeding that is insufficient for indoor plants over the long term. Consequently, they require supplementary feeding. In summary, during the vegetative (growth) period, plants must be regularly and purposefully supplied with nutrients. Inorganic nutrients or complex water-soluble fertilizers containing all essential plant components are most commonly used for this purpose. When fertilizing, one should remember that it is preferable to use dilute nutrient salt solutions—meaning to fertilize weakly but frequently. The most beneficial and convenient approach is to feed flowers with liquid fertilizers: simply measure out the required volume of liquid and add it directly to the watering water.

Pests and Pest Control

Houseplants are susceptible to various parasitic and non-parasitic diseases, as well as pest infestations. The most common pests include spider mites, aphids, scale insects, and mealybugs. Complete eradication of these parasites is only possible using chemical treatments. Chemical treatment of plants should be carried out exclusively outdoors.

Examples of Houseplants

1. Agave — Agave filifera

Family — Agavaceae (Agave)

Structural Features. A plant with rigid, partially succulent leaves, either gathered in a basal rosette or arranged along the stem. It thrives best in a sunny location.

Care: In summer, watering is necessary but moderate, depending on weather conditions. The Fertilization cycle is every 14 days, but the concentration of fertilizers should not be high; 1–3% is sufficient. Large agaves are repotted no more than once every 2–3 years, while small ones are repotted annually.

2. Aloe — Aloe variegata

Family — Liliaceae (Lily)

Structural Features. Aloe often lacks a stem, though sometimes this prominent succulent grows as a subshrub or shrub. Many species bloom every year.

Care: Regardless of the season, aloe requires good lighting. In summer, the plant should be watered when dry; in winter, watering should be restricted, and the temperature maintained at 12–16 °C. Every year in spring, the plant should be repotted into a new container.

3. Anthurium — Anthurium scherzerianum

Family — Araceae (Arum)

Structural Features. Typically reaches a height of 30–50 cm. Large bracts frame a curved inflorescence, known as a spadix, which is usually red.

Care: Anthurium should be placed in a bright spot out of direct sunlight. During the growing period, it prefers high air humidity. It grows best in a humus-rich, coarse, permeable substrate. Soft water is optimal for watering. During the growing period, feeding with liquid or complex fertilizers every 14 days is recommended.

4. Caladium — Caladium

Family — Araceae (Arum)

Structural Features. A tuberous plant distinguished by beautifully patterned leaves on long petioles, heart-shaped or arrowhead-shaped, reaching up to 60 cm in length.

Care: Requires good lighting; regular watering and frequent fertilization are necessary during the growing period. In late summer, the growing season ends, and the leaves wither and die back. The upper part of the plant dies off, so watering should be reduced during this period and eventually stopped altogether.

5. Camellia — Camellia japonica

Family — Theaceae (Tea)

Structural Features. Features glossy, rigid, leathery oval leaves. The flowers can be white, pink, or red; they sit on short petioles and have a jasmine-like fragrance.

Care: Camellias thrive in semi-shaded locations. Uniform watering with lime-free water is essential in summer, along with regular fertilization.

6. Chlorophytum — Chlorophytum comosum

Family — Liliaceae (Lily)

Structural features. Fleshy, green leaves measuring 1-2.5 cm in width and 20-30 cm in length emerge directly from the root base. In summer, it produces small white flowers.

Care: Chlorophytum can thrive in both cool and warm indoor environments. Watering and feeding schedules depend on its placement. Repotting is done in spring, and a dense soil mixture is recommended.

7. Clivia - Clivia miniata

Family - Amaryllidaceae

Structural features. Reaching 40-50 cm in length, the flower stalk is crowned with orange-red flowers; it is a bulbous plant.

Care: During the growth period, they require abundant watering and frequent fertilizer Applications. Small and young specimens should be repotted every spring, while older ones require repotting after flowering, once every 3-4 years.

8. Cyclamen - Cyclamen persicum

Family - Primulaceae

Structural features. The leaves are rounded and heart-shaped, while the flowers—ranging from large to small—come in white, pink, light and dark shades, bright red, and crimson.

Care: The most favorable temperature is 12-14 °C. Watering must be done carefully, avoiding the very center of the plant to prevent rot. Repotting requires a loose soil mixture.

9. Dracaena - Dracaena marginata

Family - Liliaceae

Structural features. A tree with sword-shaped leaves, growing 18-20 m tall, resembling a palm tree. Most species are grown as ornamental plants.

Care: They primarily require warmth. Throughout the main growing period, they need moderate watering and frequent fertilizing with nutrient-rich solutions. Repotting is carried out every year in the spring.

10. Fern - Blechnum gibbum

Family - Filicinaea

Structural features. They occur as terrestrial plants, epiphytes, and

even as plants with woody stems. Well-suited for indoor window gardens.

Care: The optimum temperature is 16-18 °C. Repotting can be done from spring to summer. Once established, they require feeding with a weak fertilizer solution.

11. Rubber Plant - Ficus elastica

Family - Moraceae

Structural features. Includes trees, shrubs, and subshrubs. All of them secrete a thick, white milky sap and feature large, oval, glossy dark-green leaves.

Care: During the growing season, they require abundant watering and periodic fertilization. In winter, watering should be done with caution, as excess moisture is harmful to them.

12. Guzmania - Guzmania

Family - Bromeliaceae

Structural features. They lead an epiphytic lifestyle. Some of them are terrestrial plants with bright flowers and bracts, as well as decorative leaf patterns.

Care: The temperature should always be kept stable at 18-20 °C; spring is the optimal time for repotting. To support root system development, a loose humus-rich potting mix is used as a substrate.

13. Kalanchoe - Kalanchoe Blossfeldiana Family - Crassulaceae

Structural features. An attractive plant featuring fiery red flowers, with many varieties and species, some of which are succulents.

Care: A bright, sunny and well-ventilated spot in the room is ideal. Summer temperature should be 18-22 °C, and winter temperature 15-18 °C. Water carefully, as Kalanchoe is very sensitive to overwatering.

14. Maranta - Maranta leuconeura

Family - Marantaceae

Structural features. Belongs to the ground-cover plants of humid tropical forests. Suitable for hydroponic cultivation and greenhouse growth.

Care: Can be cultivated both in pots and in wider containers. A mixture of turf and coniferous soil with added sand serves well as a growing substrate.

15. Monstera - Monstera deliciosa

Family - Araceae

Structural features. Comprises climbing shrubs with large, deeply lobed leaves and yellowish spadix inflorescences up to 30 cm long. The resulting berries have a pineapple-like flavor.

Care: Monstera prefers bright locations but dislikes direct sunlight. The amount of water required depends on the placement environment. Dusty leaves should be wiped clean with a soft sponge from time to time.

16. Primula - Primula obconica

Family - Primulaceae

Structural features. Features flowers with large calyces (gathered in bouquets forming umbellate inflorescences up to 10 cm across).

Care: Primroses have a long lifespan if kept in a cool, bright, and well-ventilated room. Regular watering is also essential for their resilience.

17. Spathiphyllum - Spathiphyllum

Family - Araceae

Structural features. Evergreen plants with rhizomes growing partially underground and partially above ground. Leaves are typically glossy, narrow, sword-shaped, and set on long petioles.

Care: Requires abundant watering in summer and moderate watering in winter. Regular fertilization every 2 weeks is important during the active growth period. Early spring is the most favorable time for repotting.

18. Palm - Chamaedorea elegans

Family - Arecaceae

Structural features. Depending on leaf morphology, they are divided into pinnate and fan-leaved types. Many of them are valuable tropical plants.

Care: They require nutrient-rich soil. Large specimens should be repotted every 3-5 years, while young palms need it every 1-2 years. Following planting and until The Root System is fully established, the plant should be watered moderately.

19. Pelargonium - Pelargonium grandiflorum

Family - Geraniaceae

Structural features. A decorative plant featuring A wide variety of floral forms, with both single and double flowers available.

Care: Requires a bright, sunny location. For repotting, use a medium-heavy substrate consisting of peat, sand, and compost soil.

20. Sensitive Plant - Mimosa pudica

Family - Leguminosae

Structural features. The stem grows upright, developing lateral shoots covered with elongated, fine leaves. A low-growing plant with delicate pink flowers gathered in globular inflorescences.

Care: During the growing season, it requires generous watering and weekly fertilization. Repotting is necessary 1-2 times a year, using standard garden soil or a mix of forest leaf mold, clay soil, and sand.

21. Arabian Coffee Tree - Coffea arabica

Family - Rubiaceae

Structural features. Small trees or shrubs with evergreen foliage.

Care. Requires a bright, well-ventilated spot close to a window, though it should be protected from direct sunlight.

22. Dieffenbachia - Diffenbachia

Family - Araceae

Structural features. This is an ornamental foliage plant. Its large green leaves are speckled with white or yellowish spots.

Care. Requires a semi-shaded spot in a warm room. Loose humus-rich soil, along with garden soil, is used for repotting.

23. Poinsettia - Euphorbia pulcherrima

Family - Euphorbiaceae

Structural features.

Structural features. The plant reaches up to 3 m in height, with densely branched stems that are briefly covered with leaves that soon drop off. Green, slender, bare branches covered with thorns remain.

Care. Requires a sunny location with a temperature no lower than 10°C. Water after the substrate has dried out. Fertilize every 4 weeks with a specialized cactus fertilizer.

Caution. All species of Euphorbia contain substances that irritate the skin and mucous membranes.