Lecture Notes in Human Anatomy - Hryhorieva O.A., Svitlytskyi A.O. 2020

Introduction to Human Anatomy
Anatomy as a Science
Introduction to anatomy. The subject matter and scope of anatomy, and its position among biological sciences. Main historical stages in the development of anatomy as a medical science

Lecture Outline.

1. Human Anatomy as a Science.

2. History of The Development of Human Anatomy.

3. Research Methods in anatomy.

4. Branches of normal (systematic) anatomy

Human anatomy is a branch of biology, specifically Morphology, that studies The Structure of the body of organisms and their parts. It is the science that investigates the form and STRUCTURE OF THE human body in relation to its Functions, development, and environmental influences. Modern anatomy seeks not only to describe facts but also to generalize them, clarifying not just how the Organism is constructed, but why it is constructed this way, and what the structural and developmental patterns of the organism, its Organs, and systems are. To answer these questions, modern anatomy explores both the internal and external connections of The Human Body.

The subject of anatomical study is the organism

An organism is a historically formed, integral, and evolving system possessing a distinct structure and development, capable of METABOLISM with the environment, growth, and reproduction.

OBJECTIVES OF MODERN ANATOMY:

1. Description of the structure, form, position of organs, and their interrelations, taking into account the age, sex, and individual CHARACTERISTICS OF THE human body.

2. Study of the interdependence between the structure and form of organs and their functions.

3. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE regularities of body constitution as a whole and its constituent parts.

The living human organism is an integrated system. Therefore, anatomy studies the organism not as a mere mechanical sum of its components independent of the environment, but as a single entity united with the conditions of its existence.

The human body is not something static, cast into a single, albeit perfect form; it changes continuously from birth to death. Furthermore, humans as a species are the product of long-term evolution, sharing features of kinship with animal forms. Consequently, anatomy does not only study the structure of contemporary adults, but also investigates how the human organism was shaped in the course of its historical development. To this end:

1) Human Development in the course of animal evolution (phylogeny) is studied; phylogeny is examined using comparative anatomy data, which compares the structure of various animals with that of humans; In addition to comparative anatomy, which is a descriptive science, the principles of evolutionary morphology are taken into account, revealing the driving forces of evolution and structural changes during the adaptation of the organism to specific environmental conditions;

2) The process of human emergence and development in connection with the development of society (anthropogenesis) is investigated; this relies primarily on anthropology—the science of man—alongside comparative and evolutionary morphology; anthropology studies the natural history of humans and their physical nature, taking into account the historical Development of the specific social group to which they belong and the leading role of labor in the process of anthropogenesis;

3) the process of individual development (ontogeny) is examined throughout life—both prenatal (embryonic) and postnatal, from birth to death; this utilizes data from Embryology and age-related anatomy. The final period of ontogeny—Aging—is the subject of gerontology, the science of old age.

Individual and sexual differences in the form, structure, and position of the body and its organs, as well as their topographical Location, are also taken into account.

Anatomy as a science accumulates facts and describes them—its descriptive feature; its evolutionary and functional features provide the means to explain these facts and establish structural patterns. The descriptive, evolutionary, and functional features are different facets of a unified anatomy. The principal feature of modern anatomy is its active nature, meaning not passive observation and description of body structure, but the pursuit of determining the patterns of structure and development of the organism and mastering these patterns to influence the human body in a direction that promotes optimal, harmonious human development.

Due to the vast amount of material and the difficulties in studying an integrated organism, the body is initially examined by systems, which is why anatomy is termed "systematic"; at the same time, it is called "normal" because it studies the structure of a "normal," i.e., healthy person. Pathological anatomy deals with The Study of tissues and organs altered by disease or developmental disorders. Age-related anatomy studies human GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT across various age periods. Of particular note is the functional Anatomy of The Musculoskeletal System, which investigates not only its structure but also movement dynamics, and is therefore termed dynamic anatomy. All these branches of anatomical science are aspects of a single human anatomy.

Humans are the highest product of the development of living matter, and in order to understand human structure, it is necessary to use data from biology as the science of the laws of origin and development of living nature. Just as humans are a part of living nature, anatomy is a part of biology.

Anatomy also studies the internal form and structure of organs, in which respect it is closely linked with Histology (the science of tissues) and Cytology (the science of The Cell). Anatomy, histology, cytology, and embryology together constitute a unified science of the form, structure, and development of the organism, known as morphology.

History of the development of anatomy. Anatomy is one of the most ancient biological sciences. As early as the 3rd millennium BC in Ancient China, human corpses were dissected, providing some knowledge about the structure of Internal Organs and Blood Vessels. Anatomical knowledge in Ancient China was more advanced than in Ancient Greece, which is commonly associated with the beginnings of anatomical knowledge. The famous physician of Ancient Greece, Hippocrates (approx. 460–370 BC), who is considered the father of medicine, was a materialist; his merit to science lies in the fact that he collected and systematized knowledge about The Structure of the Human Body.

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HIPPOCRATES 460-370 BC

Aristotle (384–322 BC) was one of the prominent scientists of Ancient Greece; he established that all Arteries originate from the aorta, provided an accurate description of the vena cava, and is considered the founder of comparative anatomy, embryology, and several other sciences.

One of the most distinguished scientists after Hippocrates and Aristotle was the Roman philosopher, biologist, physiologist, and anatomist Claudius Galen (130–200 AD), whose works serve as an encyclopedia of ancient medicine and anatomy. He provided valuable insights into the Classification of Bones and their joints, described PARTS OF THE Brain and seven pairs of Cranial Nerves, and proved that blood—not air—flows through the arteries, and that the walls of arteries, intestines, Stomach, and Uterus have different structures.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) began dissecting and embalming human corpses to study the STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS of the human body; he was the first to accurately depict the shapes and proportions of all skeletal parts, classified Muscles, described the structure of the musculoskeletal system, and detailed The Heart chambers, cranial sinuses, and sesamoid BONES OF THE FOOT, thereby laying the foundations of plastic anatomy.

Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) described the Skeleton, ligaments, muscles, blood vessels, nerves, brain, Sense Organs, and internal organs. He published the book De humani corporis fabrica (The Fabric of the Human Body).

William Harvey (1578–1657), an outstanding English anatomist and physiologist, published Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of The Heart and Blood in Animals.

The 19th century was marked by The Emergence of three great theories: Cell Theory, evolutionary theory, and the theory

of heredity. Cell theory was first formulated by the German scientist T. Schwann (1810–1882). In 1859, Charles Darwin published On THE ORIGIN OF Species, outlining the Main principles of evolutionary theory. The fundamental laws of heredity were discovered by the Czech scientist G. Mendel (1820–1884), who thus laid the foundations of modern genetics.

The eminent anatomist and surgeon N. I. Pirogov (1810–1881) discovered a new method for studying the topography of internal organs and was the first to note the correlation between bone shape and its function.

P. F. Lesgaft (1837–1909) advanced the ideas of Functional Anatomy. A significant role in the development of human anatomy in relation to the theory and practice of physical education and sports was played by Professor M. F. Ivanitsky (1895–1969),

who first proposed the method of anatomical analysis of athletes' postures and movements.

Research methods in anatomy.

The main Methods of Anatomical research are:

✵ descriptive (including observation),

✵ study of an individual organ or group of organs (macroscopic anatomy),

✵ study of their internal structure (microscopic anatomy);

✵ physical examination of the body (somatoscopy);

✵ dissection (from the Greek anatome – cutting up, dismembering);

Additional methods:

✵ anthropometry (somatometry) method (measuring individual body parts and calculating their ratios to determine body proportions);

✵ dissection method (studying the external structure and topography of large parts and structures);

✵ frozen section method (the Pirogov method);

✵ injection method (primarily used to study vessels, cavities, and ducts);

✵ corrosion method (injection of vessels, ducts, and cavities with plastics followed by tissue dissolution in acids or alkalis);

✵ clearing method;

✵ microscopic method (histotopography, histological and histochemical methods, Electron Microscopy);

✵ radioscopy method (radioscopy, radiography, computed tomography);

✵ nuclear magnetic Resonance (NMR) imaging;

✵ endoscopic methods;

✵ transillumination method.

Macroscopic anatomy (from the Greek *makros* – large) studies the structure of the body, individual organs, and their parts at levels visible to the naked eye or using devices that provide low magnification (magnifying Glass).

Microscopic anatomy (from the Greek *mikros* – small) studies the structure of organs using a Microscope.

The branches of normal (systematic) human anatomy include:

✵ Osteology (the study of bones);

✵ syndesmology (the Study of Skeletal articulations);

✵ myology (the study of muscles);

✵ Splanchnology (the study of the internal Organs of the digestive, respiratory, and urogenital systems);

✵ angiology (the study of the circulatory and lymphatic systems);

✵ Anatomy of The Nervous System (neurology) (the study of the central and peripheral nervous systems);

- esthesiology (the study of Sensory Organs);