Human Anatomy, Part 1 - K. A. Dyubenko, A. K. Kolomiysev, Yu. B. Chaykovsky 2002

Special Part
Osteology, osteologia [the study of bones] — General Osteology
Classification of Bones

Based on their shape, function, and development, skeletal bones are classified into four groups: tubular, spongy, flat, and mixed.

Tubular bones are divided into long and short ones. Composed of compact and spongy Bone tissue, they form the Appendicular Skeleton and function as levers for a wide range of motion driven by Muscles. A tubular bone consists of a central shaft, known as the diaphysis, diaphysis (from the Greek dia meaning between and phyo meaning to grow, referring to the growing section between the epiphyses), and two thickened ends called the epiphyses, epiphysis distalis et proximalis, which articulate with adjacent bones. The middle section of the diaphysis is tube-shaped and contains the medullary cavity, cavum medulare, which houses the Bone Marrow. The transitional zone between the diaphysis and epiphysis is termed the metaphysis, metaphysis; bony prominences on the epiphyses that serve as attachment sites for muscles and ligaments are called apophyses, apophysis.

Short tubular bones, which include the metacarpals, metatarsals, and Phalanges, act as short levers. They feature a center of endochondral ossification in only one epiphysis (monoepiphyseal bones).

Spongy bones consist predominantly of spongy bone tissue enclosed by a thin outer layer of compact bone. They are categorized into long spongy bones (such as the Sternum and Ribs) and short spongy bones (such as the vertebrae, carpals, and tarsals). This category also includes sesamoid bones (such as the pisiform, Patella, and sesamoid BONES OF THE fingers, hands, and feet), which are embedded within Muscle tendons near joints.

Flat bones, represented by the bones of the cranial vault and roof, primarily serve a protective function. They are formed by external and internal plates of compact bone, lamina externa and lamina interna, enclosing a layer of spongy bone known as the diploë, diploe, which is traversed by numerous Veins. The internal plate is brittle, earning it the name glassy table, lamina vitrea; it is more prone to fracture during impacts and cranial trauma.

Mixed bones are formed from several parts that differ in Structure, development, and function. These include the bones of the Skull base. Several cranial bones contain air-filled sinuses, ossa pneumatica, lined with a mucous membrane structurally similar to the mucosal lining of the Nasal cavity.

Bone shape is determined by biomechanical factors, including mechanical load, gravitational forces, movement, and muscle traction. M. G. Prives, N. V. Krylova, and other researchers have demonstrated The impact of human occupation on Bone Structure. Depending on mechanical stress, changes occur in the surface topography, shape, length, dimensions of the medullary cavity, and the architecture of the spongy bone (the orientation of trabeculae and the arrangement of osteons). Bone surface topography is characterized by various tuberosities, tuberositas, tubercles, tuberculum, sulci, sulcus, foramina, foramen, processes, processus, fossae, fossa, foveae, fovea, and canals, canalis. These foramina, canals, and sulci transmit and accommodate Blood Vessels, nerves, and tendons.