Human Anatomy and Physiology - N. I. Fedyukovich 2003

Bones and Articulations
Appendicular Skeleton

During Human Evolution, the limb Skeleton has undergone significant changes. The upper limbs acquired greater mobility, evolving to perform labor-related tasks and execute complex, wide-ranging movements, while the lower limbs assumed the Functions of locomotion and support, maintaining The Human Body in an upright position.

The skeleton of both the upper and lower human limbs is divided into a girdle and a free part.

The Pectoral Girdle consists of the clavicle and the scapula. The Free part of the upper limb includes the humerus, the BONES OF THE forearm (radius and ulna), and the bones of the hand (carpals, metacarpals, and Phalanges).

The Pelvic Girdle is formed by the paired hip bone, which articulates with the sacrum and the Femur of the free part of the lower limb. The Skeleton of the free part of the lower limb consists of the femur, the bones of the lower leg (Tibia and Fibula), the Patella, and the Bones of the FOOT (tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges).



Last update: 08/08/2026

Editorial and Educational Adaptation: This material has been compiled based on the primary/original source text. The project team performed an editorial review, corrected technical inaccuracies, structured sections, and adapted the content for an educational format.

What was processed:

  • elimination of formatting defects (OCR errors, structural breaks, corrupted characters);
  • editorial organization of content;
  • standardization of terminology in accordance with academic sources;
  • verification of factual statements against the original source text.

All mentions of the author, publication year, and origin of the primary text have been preserved in accordance with the source.