BOTANY WITH THE BASICS OF HYDROBOTANY - 2010

INTRODUCTION

Botany as the science of plants, its purpose and tasks. Botany is the science of plants, their origin, development, Structure, Classification, geographical distribution, ecological and phytocenotic interdependencies. Botany is closely related to agricultural and medical sciences, soil science and forestry, chemistry, physics, geology, zoology, and mathematics. Particular attention is paid to the study and protection of rare and endangered plants listed in the Red Data Book, since the loss of any species represents not only a reduction in plant diversity but also a disruption of the ecological balance that has formed over many millennia.

In-depth knowledge of botany is essential for future specialists in aquatic bioresources, as plants form The basis of all grazing trophic chains in aquatic ecosystems, and understanding their reproduction and cultivation characteristics is necessary to establish sustainable trophic systems in natural and artificial Water bodies.

The purpose of botany is to identify and uncover the fundamental patterns in the structure and Development of Plants and plant communities, their dependence on ecological factors, geographical distribution, and the accumulation and distribution of organic matter and energy. Understanding these patterns makes it possible to properly comprehend complex biological processes in nature, as well as to protect and utilize plant resources.

The intensive development of science and high Technical equipment of production set new tasks for botany:

- to uncover the Structural and functional Organization OF THE Cell and its Organelles based on modern achievements and using Electron Microscopy Methods;

- to elucidate the issues of origin, structure, and development of Plant Tissues and vegetative Organs;

- to study new sections and directions in plant systematics, ecology, and geography based on the achievements of related natural sciences;

- to create new promising varieties of useful plants, and to study the structural and life Characteristics of plant communities;

- to protect rare and endangered plant species;

- to protect and multiply plant resources.

The achievements of botany largely underpin the successes of many fields of science and human practical activity (in particular, agriculture, forestry, medicine, geology, chemistry, soil science, bionics, and green construction). The data of botanical sciences are used to varying degrees by the wood-Processing, microbiological, pulp and paper, food, textile, construction, pharmaceutical, coal, and chemical industries. However, the most important task of botany is to study an integral part of the biosphere — the planet's plant cover (phytosphere), along with the ways and methods of its rational use and protection. In particular, such issues as the productivity of phytocenoses, their impact on the Earth's gas and water regime, their role in the cycle of matter and energy, plant resource science, and the global food problem are becoming increasingly acute.

Aquatic plants (higher and lower) are the objects of research in hydrobotany. This discipline for the "Aquatic Bioresources" specialty involves a comprehensive study of individual species of aquatic coastal, meadow, and other plants, their systematic groups, natural plant communities (phytocenoses), ponds, and aquariums in various scientific and practical aspects, as well as the features of geographical distribution, substantiation of ecological adaptability, and The impact of various factors on The Development of both individual organisms and their populations.

The methods of botany have been fundamentally improved and complicated over recent decades. In addition to observations and the application of morphological, comparative-geographical, and other descriptive methods, modern botany makes wide use of tissue and cell culture techniques, immunochemistry, Chromatography, electron microscopy, and more.

Branches of botany. Botany, as a part of biology, is in turn divided into A number of separate sciences whose task is to study various patterns of plant Structure and Life, or the plant cover.

Plant Morphology is a branch of botany that studies the patterns of origin and development of external plant features and their organs.

Plant anatomy is a branch of botany that studies the internal structure, as well as the patterns of formation and development of tissues and organs during ontogeny and phylogeny.

As a result of the in-depth study of plant anatomy, several separate subdisciplines have emerged: physiological anatomy, which studies the relationship between plant structure and the processes occurring within them; ecological anatomy, which examines the Influence of Environmental conditions on plant structure; pathological anatomy, which investigates the impact of disease-causing organisms on plant structure; Cytology, which covers the patterns of Cell Structure and development along with its organelles; and Embryology, which studies the patterns of embryo formation and development, sporogenesis, gametogenesis, the morphology and Evolution of the flower and inflorescence, the formation and ULTRASTRUCTURE OF THE sporoderm, and the initiation and development of an individual Organism from the germination of a seed or spore to The formation of all genetically determined structures.

Phytopathology studies The Nature of plant diseases and develops control measures. It is based on plant developmental biology, intraspecific crop Taxonomy, and an understanding of plant responses to chemical treatments.

Plant ecology studies the patterns of relationships between PLANTS AND THEIR environment.

Plant physiology is the science of the vital activity patterns of plants (METABOLISM, growth, developmental rhythms, reproduction, etc.).

Plant biochemistry studies chemical processes within the plant organism.

Plant geography (phytogeography) is a branch of botany that studies the geographical distribution and allocation of plants and their communities across individual regions, zones, continents, oceans, and seas.

Phytocenology (geobotany) is the science that studies phytocenoses (plant communities) and their components, investigates the productivity of phytocenoses and their changes under The Influence of natural and anthropogenic factors, as well as the zoning and mapping of vegetation, utilizing various methods of ground research and aerial photography, including spaceborne surveys.

Paleobotany is a branch of botany that studies fossil plants from past geological epochs.

Plant systematics is a branch of botany focused on studying plant diversity, classifying extant and extinct plants, establishing Phylogenetic relationships among plant groups, and developing taxonomic units and phylogenetic systems. The identification and description of plants are of exceptional theoretical and practical importance.

Ethnobotany is the scientific study of how plants are used by various ethnic human populations around the world.

Based on their research subjects, botanical disciplines are categorized as follows:

algology – The Study of Algae;

bryology – the comprehensive study of bryophytes (mosses and liverworts);

dendrology – the study of woody plants;

palynology – the study of pollen grains and plant spores;

carpology – the study of fruits and seeds;

teratology – the Study of the causes of gigantism, dwarfism, developmental abnormalities in plants, and related phenomena.

Botany also encompasses specialized branches such as forest science (silviculture), meadow science (pratology), mire ecology, and tundra ecology, among others.

Hydrobotany studies plants inhabiting aquatic ecosystems (both lower and higher plants).

Botany has served as the foundation for the development of scientific fields such as microbiology, phytopathology, and pharmacology. Modern botany is characterized by the accelerated development of all its sub-disciplines, extensive interdisciplinary interaction, the integration of methods and ideas from other sciences, and a growing role in addressing the theoretical and practical challenges facing humanity.

History of botany. Botany is one of the oldest classical sciences. Its "father" is considered to be Aristotle's pupil Theophrastus of Eresus (371–286 BC), who described over 500 plant species, their distribution, reproduction, and properties. Theophrastus described not only the practical uses of plants but also their morphology, physiology, and geographic distribution. He observed that mountain trees tend to have shorter trunks, whereas when transplanted to valleys, they grow larger and more vigorous. He was the first to classify aquatic plants into distinct groups, dividing them by appearance into true water plants (ephyra), coastal plants (katphyra), marsh plants (heleia), and amphibious plants.

The most comprehensive knowledge of plants in ancient Greece and the Roman Empire is found in the works of the Roman scholar Pliny the Elder (1st century), who authored the 37-volume Natural History, 16 of which are devoted to plants.

During the Middle Ages, botany in Europe experienced little progress. Relevant knowledge was preserved primarily in monasteries, where medicinal herbs were cultivated to treat the local population. The scholastic philosopher Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) investigated the causes of plant "winter dormancy" and the influence of soils on vegetation. However, reflecting the prevailing knowledge and worldview of medieval society, he believed that plants possessed souls and could transmute into one another. During the same era, significant new data, particularly regarding medicinal plants, were accumulated in India, Egypt, and Central Asia.

During the Age of Discovery (15th–16th centuries), botanical gardens began cultivating exotic plants imported from other continents alongside native medicinal and food crops, while agriculture saw the Introduction of new fruit, vegetable, and grain varieties.

Botanical research expanded significantly during the Renaissance. Scholars investigated new evidence concerning the regional variations in plant cover, the differences in growth patterns of plants cultivated under diverse conditions, and the impact of individual environmental factors on plant Life as a whole and on specific traits (growth, development, yield, flavor, etc.).

A crucial role in the development of modern plant cytology was played by the Microscope, invented in 1610 by Galileo Galilei. The Dutch naturalist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) used the microscope to examine and illustrate various biological specimens. His drawings of plant preparations clearly show nuclei, Chloroplasts, pores, and thickened vascular walls. Leeuwenhoek's major work is Arcana Naturae Detecta Opere Detectorum Microscopiorum.

The English physicist Robert Hooke (1635–1703) improved the microscope, became the first to observe Cells, and coined the term "cellula" (cell). His drawing of cork cells has featured in plant cytology and anatomy textbooks worldwide.

Plant anatomy is considered to have been founded by two scientists: the Englishman Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) and the Italian Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694). They are credited with introducing the term "plant tissues." Grew and Malpighi not only described microscopic structural details but also sought to explain their functional significance for plants. They introduced The concepts of parenchymal and prosenchymal cells into plant anatomy and referred to the annular and spiral Vessels of the xylem as tracheae. Malpighi correlated specific microstructures with their physiological Functions, which was of great importance for the future of plant physiology.

The Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) was the first to formally describe nearly 1,500 plant species, consistently applied binomial nomenclature, and developed the most successful artificial classification system.

Botany finally established itself as an independent science in the 17th and 18th centuries and experienced explosive growth during the 19th and 20th centuries.

German scientists Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann first formulated the Cell Theory in 1838–1839.

Plant ecology as a science was established by the Danish botanist Eugenius Warming, who synthesized and systematized the available ecological data in 1895. Warming was the first to provide an Overview and classification of life forms and to describe the primary types of plant communities. He divided plants into four main ecological categories: hydrophytes, adapted to Life in water; xerophytes, inhabiting dry soils; mesophytes, plants of moderately moist soils and humid climates; and halophytes, plants adapted to saline soils.

In 1910, plant ecology was officially recognized as an independent branch of botany at the International Botanical Congress in Brussels. Its scope was defined as "the study of the sum of relations of plants and plant communities to their habitats." However, unlike animal ecology—which focuses on organisms, populations, and communities alike—plant ecology concentrated primarily on the autecological level, investigating the individual organism (species), whereas the ecology of plant communities became the domain of phytosociology (geobotany), which branched off as a separate discipline in the late 19th century. Notable exceptions were the American and British schools, which continued to incorporate phytosociology within their scope.

In the 1940s, electron microscopes of various types began to be employed for detailed studies of anatomical structures, most notably The plant cell.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, research into anatomical structures continued. Detailed information regarding The structure of the protoplast was obtained, and Mitochondria, the Golgi apparatus, and other organelles were discovered. Inventions of the latter half of the 20th century substantially advanced our understanding of the plant cell, the structure of its organelles, their ultrastructure, chemical composition, and functions.

In Ukraine, interest in plants arose in ancient times, primarily due to their use as medicinal raw Materials, but botany as a science began to develop here in the 18th century. Ukrainian botanists such as M. O. Maksymovych, V. H. Besser, A. M. Beketov, V. I. Palladin, M. I. Vavilov, S. H. Navashin, M. H. Kholodny, Ye. P. Votchal, V. M. Liubymenko, I. F. Schmalhausen, O. V. Fomin, V. I. Lypsky, A. O. Sapiehin, D. K. Zerov, A. M. Oksner, and many others made significant contributions to the Development of National botanical science through their research.

The leading botanical institutions in Ukraine are part of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine: the M. G. Kholodny Institute of Botany, the Institute of Plant Physiology and Genetics, the Institute of Hydrobiology, the Institute of Microbiology and Virology, the National Botanical Garden, and the Nikitsky Botanical Garden.

Characteristics of Plants. Plants share features common to All living organisms (such as Nutrition, Respiration, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT, irritability, and reproduction), alongside properties inherent exclusively to plants.

The fundamental characteristic of plants is their autotrophy—The ability to harness light energy, which green plants use to synthesize organic substances from inorganic ones, namely CO₂ and H₂O, thereby carrying out Photosynthesis. Photosynthesis takes place within specialized plant cell organelles known as green Plastids, or chloroplasts, which are absent in the cells of other organisms.

The autotrophic mode of nutrition entails a number of distinctive plant features that are reflected in their structural organization. Let us examine some of them.

Plants are characterized by a high surface-area-to-volume ratio, which is essential for the absorption of light and carbon dioxide by their aerial parts, and water and mineral nutrients by their subterranean parts. This has a direct impact on internal structure: a large body surface requires mechanical support and long-distance Transport of substances. To achieve this, plants possess a well-developed system of mechanical and Vascular Tissues.

Another distinctive feature of plants is their indeterminate growth, enabling them to continuously increase their body surface and colonize ever-new spaces for aerial and ROOT nutrition. This means that various types of meristematic tissues are constantly present and active within the plant.

Plants are incapable of active locomotion due to their large and branching body surface. Exceptions are limited to certain algae and zoospores that possess flagella. Lacking mobility, plants require robust protection against adverse environmental conditions. Such protective adaptations include a sturdy Cell wall, tough protective tissues (e.g., the bark of a giant sequoia measuring 60–70 cm in thickness), and pest-repellent compounds. The latter accumulate in specialized secretory structures.

Owing to photosynthesis, and unlike animals, anabolic processes (assimilation of substances) predominate over catabolic processes (breakdown of organic substances into simpler compounds) in plants. Consequently, plants accumulate reserve substances (CARBOHYDRATES, Proteins, and Lipids).

Plants utilize matter and energy very efficiently and do not excrete Metabolic waste products, with the exception of carbon dioxide, which is reutilized in photosynthesis. Plants lack an excretory system; instead, they possess Secretory Tissues that function more like secretory or storage structures. Any substances they do excrete externally are primarily associated with attracting pollinating insects or defending against pests.

The autotrophic nature of plants manifests itself not only in photosynthesis but also in mineral nutrition. Plants absorb water and mineral nutrients from the soil via their roots, transporting them upward through the plant body to the leaves, while assimilates—the products of photosynthesis—flow downward from the leaves.

The Significance of Plants in the Biosphere and Human Life. Plants play an immensely vital role in nature. Through photosynthesis, over 450 billion tons of organic matter are synthesized globally each year, 88% of which is produced in aquatic ecosystems. The amount of solar energy captured by plants exceeds by tens of times the energy used in industry, daily life, and to satisfy human biological needs.

Carbon assimilated from the atmosphere becomes incorporated into the compounds of the plant organism. It returns to the environment through the mineralization of plant debris. Thus, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere remains stable. The processes of assimilation and synthesis occur in parallel with Catabolism and The breakdown of synthesized organic matter. The decomposition and mineralization of plant remains are carried out by Bacteria and Fungi. Thanks to plant activity, vast amounts of oxygen are released into the atmosphere, creating an essential condition for the survival of animals and humans.

Plants are also of paramount importance in human life, as they fulfill all basic biological needs. They serve as a primary source of food. Plant raw materials are likewise utilized in The production of textiles, Dyes, and varnishes. Furthermore, plants are a valuable source of medicines, Vitamins, spices, Essential Oils, and more.

In addition, plants embellish towns and villages, providing humans with aesthetic enjoyment. Surrounding large cities and industrial zones, plants purify the air and enrich it with oxygen.