Pharmacognosy with the Basics of Plant Biochemistry - Kovalyov, V. M. 2004

Special Part
Essential Oils
Medicinal plants and raw materials containing monoterpenoids

CORIANDER FRUIT — FRUCTUS CORIANDRI CORIANDER OIL — OLEUM CORIANDRI

Coriander — Coriandrum sativum L., fam. Apiaceae

Coriander (cilantro); the latinized name originates from the Greek koris — bug, due to the bug-like odor of immature fruits, and aneron — dill; sativus, -um — cultivated.

An annual herbaceous plant, 40-150 cm tall. Lower leaves are petiolate, pinnatisect, with rounded, incised-serrate segments; upper leaves are sessile or short-petiolate, bipinnatisect, with pinnatipartite segments and linear lobes. Flowers are small, bisexual, five-petaled, gathered in compound three- to six-rayed umbels lacking involucre; petals are white or reddish. Fruits are globose cremocarps, 2 to 5 mm in size depending on the variety, with persistent calyx Teeth; typically do not split into mericarps. The color of ripe fruits is yellowish-brown.

Distribution. Coriander is native to the eastern Mediterranean region. In Ukraine, it is cultivated as an essential oil, medicinal, and spice crop.

Harvesting. The plants are mown when half of the fruits are ripe, dried in sheaves or windrows, then threshed and sieved. Stored in a dry, cool room.

Chemical composition of the raw material. Coriander fruits contain essential oil (0.7-1.5%), which includes linalool (60-70%), pinene, limonene, terpinene, myrcene, phellandrene, geraniol, cymene, borneol, and in small amounts citronellol, geranyl acetate, bornyl acetate; fatty oil (20%), Proteins and Tannins, Coumarins, Flavonoids, Choline, resins.

Biological activity and application. The infusion stimulates the secretion of digestive glands, exhibits spasmolytic and antibacterial properties, and is a component of appetite-stimulating, choleretic, expectorant, and anti-hemorrhoidal herbal mixtures; the tincture is part of the complex anxiolytic remedy Flora; the essential oil is a component of the analgesic and anti-inflammatory complex preparation Espol.

Linalool is obtained from the oil, and citral is subsequently derived from linalool; a 1% solution of citral is used as an anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial agent.

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MELISSA LEAF — FOLIA MELISSAE MELISSA HERB — HERBA MELISSAE

Lemon balm — Melissa officinalis L., fam. Lamiaceae

Lemon balm; the latinized name comes from the Greek melissa — bee; Latin officinalis — apothecary.

A perennial herbaceous plant.

The stem is quadrangular, up to 1 m tall, highly branched. Leaves are ovate, short-petiolate, acute at the apex, with a serrate margin, 2-8 cm long and 1-6 cm wide, dark green and glabrous on the upper surface, light green and pubescent on the lower surface.

Flowers are small, located in axillary verticillasters of the upper leaves. Calyx is bilabiate, tubular-campanulate. Corolla is bilabiate, initially yellow, later white or pale lilac. The fruit is dry, breaking down into four single-seeded nutlets. Before flowering, the entire plant has a pleasant lemony scent.

Distribution. It grows in Mediterranean and Central European countries; in Ukraine, it is cultivated, frequently escapes cultivation, and is found along riverbanks and roadsides.

Harvesting. The leaves are harvested before flowering, when the essential oil content is at its peak. It is best to gather them at midday in dry, overcast weather to minimize the loss of essential oil. The herb is mown during the budding stage of the first flower buds. The collected raw material is dried at a Temperature of 35 °C.

Chemical composition ofuric raw material. The herb contains essential oil (1%), which includes citral (60%), linalool, geraniol, citronellol, myrcene, aldehydes; it also contains tannins (5%), bitters, mucilage, organic (succinic, caffeic, chlorogenic) and triterpene (ursolic, oleanolic) acids.

Biological activity and application. The infusion is used for general nervous agitation, insomnia, neurocirculatory dystonia, and Cardiac Arrhythmias; it has a tonic effect on the Digestive System and exhibits anti-inflammatory, bacteriostatic, and antiviral properties.

LAVENDER FLOWER — FLORES LAVANDULAE LAVENDER OIL — OLEUM LAVANDULAE

Narrow-leaved lavender (English lavender, true lavender) — Lavandula angustifolia Mill. (L. vera, L. spica), fam. Lamiaceae

Narrow-leaved lavender; the Latin name derives from lavare — to wash and angustifolius, -a — narrow-leaved.

Plant. An evergreen subshrub with numerous branched stems, 20-60 cm tall. Leaves are opposite, sessile, linear or linear-lanceolate, with revolute margins. Flowers are zygomorphic, gathered into 6-10-flowered verticillasters forming intermittent spicate inflorescences up to 5 cm long; corolla is blue-purple, rarely white or pink. The fruit consists of four nutlets.

Distribution. The homeland of lavender is the Mediterranean region. In Crimea, it is cultivated as an essential oil crop and, less frequently, as an ornamental plant. It is also grown in Moldova and Georgia.

Harvesting. The plant is mown at the beginning of flowering, tied into small sheaves or laid in windrows in the shade, dried rapidly, and threshed. The raw material is processed immediately to minimize essential oil losses. Lavender oil is obtained from fresh inflorescences by steam distillation or extraction.

Chemical COMPOSITION OF THE raw material. The inflorescences contain essential oil (1.2 %). The Main Components of the oil are linalyl acetate (30-50 %) and free linalool (25-45 %), along with geraniol, nerol, 1,8-cineole, borneol, bornyl acetate, camphor, etc.

Coumarins, ursolic acid, tannins (12 %), and anthocyanins have also been identified.

Biological activity and application. The infusion exhibits sedative and spasmolytic effects. Lavender oil displays antiseptic properties. The complex preparation Livian, which includes this essential oil, exerts anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects and is used for treating Burns.

PEPPERMINT LEAVES — FOLIA MENTHAE PIPERITAE

PEPPERMINT OIL — OLEUM MENTHAE PIPERITAE

Peppermint — Mentha piperita L., fam. Lamiaceae

Peppermint (Мята перечная); the Latinized name mentha originates from the Greek name of the nymph Minthe, associated with the myth of her transformation into a plant; piperitus, -a means pungent, derived from piper (pepper).

A perennial herbaceous pubescent plant. The stem is four-angled, ascending, branched, often reddish, 30-50 cm in height.

Leaves are opposite, short-petiolate, ovate-oblong or lanceolate, acute, irregularly serrate, up to 8 cm long and 3 cm wide, glabrous, with sparse hairs only along the Veins. The odor is strong and aromatic, the taste is pungent. Flowers are small, nearly sterile (fruits form very rarely), gathered at the apex of the stem in verticils forming a dense spike-like inflorescence; the calyx is regular, five-toothed, with ten longitudinal veins; the corolla is almost regular, reddish-purple, with a whitish tube.

Distribution. It does not occur in the wild. It is a hybrid resulting from the cross between Water mint (Mentha aquatica) and spearmint (Mentha viridis). The main regions of peppermint cultivation are Ukraine, Moldova, Russia, Belarus, and the North Caucasus. The plant is also cultivated in England, Germany, France, the USA, etc.

Harvesting. The raw material is harvested when half of the flowers in the inflorescence have opened and the rest are still in bud. Fresh or dried herb is used to obtain essential oil and natural menthol. To obtain the leaves, the dried herb is threshed.

Chemical composition of the raw material. The leaves contain essential oil; depending on the variety, its content ranges from 1.5 to 2.7 %, and occasionally up to 3.5 %. The main constituents of the oil are menthol (50-80 %), the ketones menthone (10-30 %), piperitone, jasmone, and pulegone. Other Terpenes are also present: menthofuran (5-10 %), limonene, α-phellandrene, proazulenes, as well as menthol esters with acetic and isovaleric acids. The aroma of the oil is influenced by The ratio of jasmone to menthofuran.

Other groups of BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE SUBSTANCES include flavonoids (hesperidin, anthocyanidins), tannins (6-12 %), triterpenoids (ursolic and oleanolic acids), betaine, and carotenoids.

Biological activity and application. The infusion enhances the secretion of digestive glands and exhibits spasmolytic, sedative, antidiarrheal, choleretic, and mild analgesic effects. The essential oil is a component of such preparations as Inhalipt, Corvaldin, Corvalol, Mint Tablets, Dental Drops, Urolesan, and Pinosol. Menthol irritates nerve endings, exerting a reflex vasodilating, analgesic, and antiseptic effect. It is included in preparations such as Alorom, Bom-Benge, Boromenthol, Valocormid, Gevkamen, Cameton, Camphomen, Zelenin's Drops, Menovazin, and Pectusin.

SAGE LEAVES — FOLIA SALVIAE

Common sage — Salvia officinalis L., fam. Lamiaceae

Sage (Шалфей лекарственный); the Latinized generic name derives from salvus (healthy), and officinalis means medicinal.

The plant. A subshrub with erect, branched stems 20-70 cm in height, nearly rounded, whitish-tomentose from long hairs. Leaves are opposite, petiolate, ovate-oblong or oblong-elliptic, rounded or shallowly cordate at the base, obtuse or acute at the apex, finely crenate along the margin, and whitish-tomentose on both sides; the lower leaves often have one or two small lobes at the base.

Flowers are bisexual, zygomorphic, forming false 4-8-flowered verticils; the calyx is campanulate; the corolla is bright lilac, bilabiate, with an almost straight upper lip and a three-lobed lower lip. The fruit consists of four nutlet-like mericarps.

Distribution. The homeland is the Mediterranean region. In Ukraine, it is cultivated as an essential oil, medicinal, and ornamental plant.

Harvesting. The leaves are harvested in two periods: in June (budding stage) and in September (second regrowth). The leaves are hand-picked individually and dried immediately, or the entire above-ground part is cut with sickles, dried, threshed, and the stems are discarded.

Chemical composition of the raw material. Sage leaves contain essential oil (1-2.5%), which includes thujone (up to 50%), 1,8-cineole (up to 15%), camphor, camphene, as well as o-cymene, myrcene, cedrene, a-pinene, sabinene, limonene, borneol, and bornyl acetate.

The leaves accumulate bitter diterpene lactones: carnosol, carnosic acid, rosmanol, sagenone, etc.; triterpenoids: oleanolic and ursolic acids (over 2%); flavonoids (1.2%), which are derivatives of apigenin and luteolin, play a certain role in the biological action.

Biological activity and application. Galenical preparations and sage infusion exhibit anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and astringent effects, reduce perspiration, and stimulate the secretion of gastric juice. Externally, they are used for rinsing the Oral Cavity and throat in inflammatory processes. Salviin (an acetone extract from sage leaves) acts as a plant-derived antibiotic due to its diterpene content; it is used for gingivitis and stomatitis.

In homeopathy, fresh leaves are used as a regulator of perspiration. They are prescribed for exhausted individuals and during menopause. Externally, they are used as a gargle for throat and oral cavity disorders.

EUCALYPTUS LEAVES — FOLIA EUCALYPTI

VIMINATE EUCALYPTUS LEAVES —

FOLIA EUCALYPTI VIMINALIS EUCALYPTUS OIL — OLEUM EUCALYPTI

Tasmanian blue gum — Eucalyptus globulus Labill., ash eucalyptus — Eucalyptus cinerea F. Muell. ex Benth., viminate eucalyptus — Eucalyptus viminalis Labill., fam. Myrtaceae

Globular eucalyptus, grey gum, viminate eucalyptus; the latinized name comes from the Greek eu — well and calypto — to conceal, because the buds are hidden under the sepals.

Plant. Tasmanian blue gum is an evergreen tree 50-70 m tall. Young branches are four-sided, leaves are opposite, sessile, often stem-clasping, ovate, with a cordate base, covered with a glaucous waxy bloom. Later, the branches become rounded, and the leaves become alternate, short-petioled, coriaceous, narrowly lanceolate, falcately curved dark green blades, 5-30 cm long and 2-3 cm wide. Flowers are bisexual, solitary, axillary, with a tubular four-sided calyx. The fruit is a capsule.

Ash eucalyptus is an evergreen tree up to 20 m tall. Leaves are silvery-grey, heteromorphic; young leaves are opposite, sessile, ovate or nearly round, cordate at the base, 3-4 cm long, 3-5 cm wide; mature leaves are opposite or alternate, nearly sessile, ranging from broadly ovate to broad or narrow lanceolate, coriaceous, 5-10 cm long, 1-3 cm wide. Flowers are bisexual, small, gathered in axillary umbels.

Viminate eucalyptus is an evergreen tree 40-50 m tall. Leaves are pale green, of various shapes: young leaves are opposite, sessile or stem-clasping, lanceolate, 5-10 cm long, 1.5-2 cm wide; mature leaves are alternate, petiolate, lanceolate or narrowly lanceolate, 11-18 cm long and up to 2 cm wide. Flowers are small, bisexual, gathered in threes in axillary umbels.

Distribution. All eucalyptus species (and there are over 500 of them) originate from Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. Cultivated in Georgia.

Harvesting. The leaves of each species are harvested separately throughout the year, most frequently in summer. Young leaves begin to be gathered in November, while old ones are collected year-round. They are dried in the open air or in a well-ventilated room, spread in a thin layer and turned over periodically. Artificial drying is carried out at a temperature not exceeding 40 °C.

Chemical composition of the raw material. The leaves accumulate essential oil (1.3-4.5%), the main component of which is cineole (80%), with smaller amounts of a-pinene, pinocarvone, and aliphatic aldehydes such as isovaleric, caproic, and caprylic aldehydes. Other biologically active substances investigated include flavonoids, tannins, chlorophyll, ellagic acid, and phenolic acids.

Biological activity and application. Eucalyptus preparations exhibit bactericidal, anti-inflammatory, and astringent properties. A mixture of chlorophylls from eucalyptus leaves yields the antistaphylococcal preparation chlorophyllipt. Eucalyptus oil is part of combination drugs such as Inгалипт (Ingalipt), Kameton, Efcamon, Oporam, Gevcamen, and Pinosal.

VALERIAN RHIZOMES AND ROOTS — RHIZOMATA CUM RADICIBUS VALERIANAE

Garden valerian — Valeriana officinalis L., fam. Valerianaceae

Valeriana lekarstvennaya; the latinized name comes from valere — to be healthy, and officinalis — pharmaceutical.

A perennial herbaceous plant, 30-100 cm tall. Rhizomes with numerous adventitious roots, short, thick, with a firm or soft pith, sometimes hollow, with solid or interrupted transverse partitions. In wild valerian, rhizomes are 2-3 cm long, whereas in cultivated species they are larger: up to 5 cm long and up to 3 cm wide.

Roots are cylindrical, 1-2 mm thick, smooth, up to 8 cm long in wild plants and up to 20 cm long in cultivated ones. Remnants of stolons are visible on the rhizomes of all valerian species. The stem is erect, cylindrical, furrowed, hollow, glabrous or pubescent, branched in the upper part. Leaves are opposite, odd-pinnatisect, with lanceolate segments; lower leaves are petiolate, with four to five pairs of segments, stem leaves are sessile, with six to eight pairs of segments. The margin of the segments is serrate, less frequently entire. Flowers are bisexual, zygomorphic, small, white or pale pink, gathered in corymbose cymes at the apex of the stem and in the axils of the upper leaves. The fruit is an achene.

Distribution. It grows almost throughout the territory of Ukraine in waterlogged lowlands, dry meadows, along the banks of rivers and bogs, in forests, on steppe slopes, in meadow and forb steppes. Cultivated.

Harvesting. Harvested in autumn after fruit ripening or early in spring. The dug-up rhizomes are freed from the aerial part, thick ones are split into two to four parts, and quickly washed with cold water. Initially, the raw material is spread outdoors in a layer up to 15 cm thick for preliminary wilting for one to two days. Then it is dried under sheds, spread in a thin layer, or in dryers at a temperature of 40 °C.

Chemical composition of the crude drug. The rhizomes and roots contain essential oil (2%), the main component of which is bornyl isovalerate—an ester of borneol and isovaleric acid—along with free borneol, bornyl acetate, camphene, limonene, pinene, terpineol, and others. In addition to the essential oil, the underground Organs of valerian contain the Alkaloids valerine and chatinine, as well as Iridoids (valepotriates), which exhibit sedative effects.

The content of valepotriates (the sum of native compounds and their components) in the raw material reaches 0.5–1%. Valepotriates are iridoid epoxides in which the cyclopentanopyran Skeleton features five hydroxyl groups. Two hydroxyl groups form an epoxide (cyclic ether), while the other three are esterified with aliphatic acids: one with acetic acid and two with isovaleric acid or its derivatives.

Depending on the esterifying acids, valepotriates are classified into: valtrates, where the radicals are residues of isovaleric acid, and acetoxyisovaltrates (acevaltrate), The Structure of which contains residues of isovaleric and acetoxyisovaleric acids.

Upon drying freshly harvested rhizomes, valepotriates undergo partial enzymatic Cleavage, yielding free isovaleric acid or its analogs, as well as the iridoid baldrinal. This process imparts the characteristic valerian odor to the crude drug.

Biological activity and application. Valerian preparations reduce excitability and improve Central Nervous system function, regulate Cardiac Activity, lower Blood pressure, exhibit spasmolytic and mild choleretic effects, and enhance the secretory activity of digestive glands. Liquid valerian extract and valerian extract tablets are widely used.

The crude drug is a component of sedative and gastric herbal teas. Valerian tincture is used either alone or as part of complex preparations such as Valormid, Cardiovalent, Cardiofit, Zelenin drops, Stomach drops, etc.

In homeopathy, the rhizomes and roots are used to treat mental disorders, depression, insomnia, and headaches.

JUNIPER BERRIES — FRUCTUS JUNIPERI

Common juniper — Juniperus communis L., fam. Cupressaceae

Common juniper; the name juniperus is a Latinized name for the juniper, possibly originating from the Celtic jeneprus, meaning prickly.

Plant description. An evergreen shrub or small tree (3-5 m tall). It is a dioecious, rarely monoecious plant with a conical or ovoid crown. Young shoots are reddish-brown and three-angled. Leaves are needle-like, rigid, linear-subulate, 8-20 mm long, prickly, flat-grooved on the upper side, light green with a bluish bloom, and green on the lower side, arranged in alternating whorls of three. Sporangia are located at the ends of axillary branchlets: male strobili are yellow and spike-like; female ones consist of several seed scales and three ovules resembling green buds. After Fertilization, the scales of the female cone fuse to form a fleshy green galbulus (cone-berry). The galbuli are globose-ovoid, black with a bluish bloom, 6-9 mm in diameter, often with three small tubercles at the apex. At the Base of the fruit is a short pedicel with small brown bracts. The fruit pulp contains three triangular seeds that are convex on the outside and flat on the inner side.

Distribution. It grows in the Carpathians and Polissya regions in the understory of coniferous, rarely mixed forests. Occasionally cultivated in gardens and parks as an ornamental plant.

Harvesting and Processing. For medicinal purposes, the cone-berries are harvested in autumn by shaking them onto a tarp spread under the bushes. The gathered berries are used fresh or dried in a well-heated room, spread in a thin layer. Artificial drying should be carried out at temperatures not exceeding 40 °C. The cone-berries can be stored fresh for a long time at temperatures around 0 °C.

Chemical composition of the raw material. The fruits contain essential oil (0.52%), which includes a-pinene, camphene, cadinene, dipentene, a-terpineol, borneol, and isoborneol.

Other groups of biologically active substances include flavonoids, resins (9%), organic acids (malic, acetic, formic, glycolic), sugars (30%), Pectins, tannins, Inositol, and potassium salts.

Biological activity and application. Juniper preparations increase diuresis and disinfect the Urinary Tract, stimulate the secretion of gastric juice and Bile, enhance intestinal peristalsis, facilitate expectoration, and act as anti-inflammatory and analgesic agents.

CARAWAY FRUIT — FRUCTUS CARVI

Caraway — Carum carvi L., fam. Apiaceae

Caraway; the name derives from the Latinized Greek karon (caraway), possibly from the Greek kara (HEAD) and the Arabic name for caraway, kanvia.

A biennial herbaceous plant, 30-80 cm tall. The stem is glabrous, branching from the middle. Leaves are alternate, oblong, bi- or tripinnate, with linear ultimate segments. Flowers are small, regular, bisexual, white or pink, arranged in compound umbels. The fruit is an elongated cremocarp that splits upon ripening into dark brown mericarps; these are arcuate, flat on the inner side and convex on the outer, with five prominent Ribs. The length of the mericarps is 3-7 mm, and the width is about 1.5 mm; a cross-section reveals six essential oil canals. The aroma is strong and fragrant, and the taste is bitter-spicy.

Distribution. It grows throughout Ukraine in meadows, along forest edges and clearings, and in ravines. It is cultivated as an essential oil crop.

Harvesting. Raw material is harvested when the fruits of the primary umbels turn brown while the remaining ones are still green. Harvesting is best carried out in the morning or evening to prevent the shedding of ripe fruits. The cut plants are tied into small sheaves and placed under a canopy to ripen. Afterward, they are threshed, and the fruits are separated using winnowing machines or sieves. Store in dry, well-ventilated areas.

Chemical composition of the raw material. The fruits contain essential oil (3–7%), which includes carvone (38–60%), limonene (40–50%), carveol, dihydrocarvone, and other terpenoids, as well as flavonoids (quercetin and kaempferol), fatty oil, and polyacetylenes.

Biological activity and application. Caraway fruit preparations exhibit antimicrobial, antispasmodic, expectorant, and choleretic effects, and they enhance Lactation, perspiration, and diuresis. They are used to improve Digestion, as well as for atonic constipation, flatulence, and Chronic Pancreatitis. The fruits are a component of carminative, gastric, and sedative teas.

In homeopathy, dry aged leaves are used for Upper Respiratory Tract catarrh accompanied by purulent discharge.

Raw material sources of camphor

Camphor (2-bornanone) exists in the form of two isomers: (+) dextrorotatory, of natural origin; (—) levorotatory, semi-synthetic; and (±) racemic, synthetic.

(+)-Camphor is found in the Essential Oils of camphor laurel, fir, camphor basil, wormwood, and sage. On an industrial scale, it is obtained from the wood of the camphor laurel, or camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora, Lauraceae). Ukraine imports (+)-camphor.

Semi-synthetic (—)-camphor is obtained from the shoots of Siberian fir (Abies sibirica, Pinaceae). Steam distillation yields an essential oil containing 40% borneol and bornyl acetate. Their mixture is isolated from the oil by rectification. Bornyl acetate is saponified to borneol, which is then dehydrogenated to (—)-camphor.

Production of (±)-camphor. Industrially, (±)-camphor is synthesized from α-pinene (the main component of turpentine). A detailed description of turpentine is provided in the section "Diterpenes." In the presence of an acid catalyst, α-pinene is isomerized into camphene, which is purified from by-products (limonene, fenchones, etc.) and esterified with acetic acid into bornyl acetate. Next, this compound is saponified with an alkali solution to convert it into isoborneol, which is then dehydrogenated to (±)-camphor. The camphor content in the starting product is 87%.

For medical use, racemic camphor is purified to a main substance content of 98% in the bulk substance.

Biological activity and application. Upon parenteral administration of oil solutions, camphor exhibits an analeptic effect; upon external application, it shows antimicrobial, counterirritant, and analgesic effects (Camphocin, Camphamen, camphor oil, camphor spirit, camphor ointment, etc.). Bromocamphor is used internally as a sedative and cardiac agent.