Psychiatry - H.T. Sonnyk 2003

Key stages in the historical development of psychiatry

The History of Psychiatry spans many centuries. Mental illnesses have existed for as long as humanity itself. However, psychiatry as a distinct branch of medicine only took shape in the late 18th century. Its history encompasses not just The process of becoming a scientific discipline, but also demonstrates the evolution of society's attitude toward the mentally ill.

According to the periodization proposed by the renowned psychiatric historian Yu.V. Cannabikh (1929), there are six historical stages in The Development of scientific views and, consequently, the Organization of care for the mentally ill.

The first (pre-scientific) period is characterized by a theological understanding of abnormal behavior. During this time, ancient peoples' perceptions of mental disorders were reflected in myths, legends, and folklore.

The second period marks the initial steps toward understanding mental disorders without theological overtones—a significant progress that laid the groundwork for organizing care for psychiatric patients. This era also saw The formation of the medical profession.

The third period corresponds to the Middle Ages, characterized by a regression to a pre-scientific worldview. Society's attitude toward the sick during this epoch was ambivalent, ranging from the first steps in organizing public care to execution at the stake by the Inquisition. Tens of thousands of people, including the mentally ill, were publicly burned alive. This period also witnessed the construction of primitive institutions for confining the mentally ill. Kept in damp, dark basements in chains and handcuffs, they faced brutal punishments. The primary goal was isolation rather than Treatment.

The fourth period, spanning the 18th and early 19th centuries, was the era when psychiatry established itself as a medical specialty, championed by figures like Ph. Pinel and J. Conolly, who advocated for non-violence toward the mentally ill. This period saw the construction of the first psychiatric hospitals, where research began, laying the foundation for psychiatric symptomatology. In 1792, the French physician Ph. Pinel (1745–1826) removed the chains from psychiatric patients, abolished the prison-like regime, and mandated humane treatment by medical staff. He combined treatment with differentiated physical labor. In 1801, Pinel published his Medical-Philosophical Treatise on Mental Alienation, in which he systematized and described these conditions.

Pinel's student, J. Esquirol (1772–1840), continued these reforms and campaigned vigorously for patients' rights. He introduced regular ward rounds and case histories into hospital practice, and in 1838, he published a two-volume guide to psychiatry titled Mental Maladies.

In England during the 1840s, J. Conolly established the "non-restraint" system, arguing that physical coercion is harmful because it degrades the patient and hinders recovery.

In 1803, J. Reil proposed the term "psychiatry".

The fifth period is the era of nosological psychiatry. Building upon a sufficiently developed Clinical Psychiatry that provided abundant observational material, attempts were made to apply contemporary medical methodology to create a comprehensive (natural-science) model of psychiatry. The main achievement of this period was the creation of a new nosological Classification of mental disorders.

The foundation of the nosological approach in psychiatry was laid in 1834 by P.O. Butkovsky in his seminal work Mental Diseases...

Following him, K. Kahlbaum (1828–1899) introduced nosological criteria into psychiatry, proposing The Study of both mental and somatic symptoms of psychosis, its course, and the sequential progression of clinical manifestations.

Later, E. Kraepelin (1856–1926), drawing upon Kahlbaum's criteria, distinguished manic-depressive psychosis and dementia praecox as separate nosological entities in 1896. Kraepelin systematized Mental Illnesses and authored a comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry.

Classifications from this period began to encompass not only pronounced psychotic forms of illness, but also a broad category of "minor" and "borderline" psychiatry. Concurrently, divergent approaches to understanding the mechanisms and causes of mental disorders emerged, driving the development of fields such as Freudianism, psychodynamics, and clinical-biological and social psychiatry.

The sixth (contemporary) stage in the development of psychiatry is characterized by extensive research into out-patient, social, and somatological aspects of psychiatry, alongside the "psychopharmacological revolution". Social and biological psychiatry, as well as social rehabilitation, experienced significant growth, while global issues such as geriatric mental disorders and suicidology came to the forefront.

Thus, in a relatively short span of time, psychiatry traversed a remarkable path, evolving from a science of "pure observation" into a rapidly developing medical specialty.

The establishment of academic psychiatry in Ukraine and other Slavic countries.

The founder of psychiatry in the Slavic countries was the Kharkiv professor P.O. Butkovsky, author of the first manual titled Mental Diseases. He taught psychiatry at Kharkiv University from 1834 to 1844, significantly earlier than I.M. Balinsky at the St. Petersburg Medico-Surgical Academy.

Petro Oleksandrovych Butkovsky (1801–1844) was born into a clergyman's family. After studying at the Greco-Latin College in Kharkiv, he entered the St. Petersburg Medico-Surgical Academy. Upon graduation, he served for 9 years as a military physician in various hospitals and units of the Russian army. In his spare time, he maintained an extensive private practice among the civilian population, treating both somatic and mental illnesses. During these years, he developed a deep interest in the works of Russian and foreign psychiatrists, facilitated by his fluency in Latin, French, German, and Swedish. In February 1830, Staff Physician Petro Butkovsky petitioned the conference of the Medico-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg for permission to defend his dissertation on mental illnesses publicly in lieu of standard examinations to obtain his Doctor of Medicine degree. His request was granted, and that same year he submitted his highly praised work. However, due to unexplained delays, the manuscript was reviewed and approved by the conference only two years later. On December 24, 1832, P.O. Butkovsky was awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine, which was subsequently recognized by the University of Helsinki.

He was dissatisfied with the contemporary classification of mental illnesses, noting that "...all forms of these diseases were described under the names of melancholia and frenzy..." (vol. I, p. 1). The progress of psychiatry was hindered by the fact that for centuries "...psychology was taught according to the dogmas of metaphysics..." (vol. I, p. 2). Practical experience and vast theoretical knowledge enabled P.O. Butkovsky to begin writing a manual on psychiatry. He wrote modestly of this endeavor: "Having had the opportunity to familiarize myself with all psychiatric writings... and finding a distinct lack of a proper guide, I deemed it necessary to write Mental Diseases...". In January 1833, P.O. Butkovsky submitted his manuscript for publication, and in mid-1834, Mental Diseases, Presented in Accordance with the Principles of Current Psychiatric Doctrine in Their General and Particular, Theoretical and Practical Content was published. This was the first manual on psychiatry in Russia. P.O. Butkovsky was among the first in the world to include the term "psychiatry" in the title of a textbook and make extensive use of it throughout the text.

On November 15, 1834, he was appointed Full Professor at Kharkiv University, holding the Chair of Surgery and Mental Diseases. Three years later, he transferred to the Chair of Special Pathology and Therapy, but continued to teach mental diseases throughout his 10-year tenure at Kharkiv University. During this period, Kharkiv was home to one of Russia's first psychiatric hospitals, opened in 1796 and known as the Saburov Dacha. P.O. Butkovsky closely collaborated with this hospital, as it implemented the treatment Methods he proposed.

P.O. Butkovsky died on November 21, 1844, from a Cerebral Hemorrhage at the age of 43.

Butkovsky's Mental Diseases consists of two volumes totaling 318 pages. In them, the author advocated for materialist views, pioneered a physiological direction in psychiatry, and emphasized the necessity of moving away from metaphysical dogmas. His progressive views drew harsh criticism (K.I. Grum, 1834, 1835; O.I. Senkovsky, 1834; P.P. Malinovsky, 1847). Later, he was criticized for religious and mystical leanings (Yu.V. Cannabikh, 1929; T.I. Yudin, 1951). For many decades, his status as the author of the first psychiatric manual, the first professor of psychiatry, and the first university lecturer on mental diseases was systematically overlooked.

P.I. Kovalevsky (1849–1923), a student of Professor Frese, headed the Department of Psychiatry in Kharkiv starting in 1877. His extensive works covered all areas of nervous and mental disorders, ranging from psychology to anatomical research in the psychography of prominent figures. Of particular interest among his psychological works are his Foundations of The Mechanism of Mental Activity (1885), which outlines his view that mental development occurs through the resolution of contradictions between thinking and affective states, mediated by the will. Among Kovalevsky's clinical works, special mention should be made of his studies on neurosyphilis and The Role of Syphilis in the Etiology of general paresis and tabes dorsalis—concepts he persuasively argued at the time. In 1883, Kovalevsky began publishing Russia's first psychiatric journal, Archive of Neurology and Psychiatry. P.I. Kovalevsky's textbook on psychiatry was the first Russian publication of its kind to go through four editions. Also noteworthy is his classification of mental diseases, presented in his pioneering Course... (1882).

Ivan Oleksiyovych Sikorsky (1845–1918). After graduating from Kyiv University in 1872, he defended his doctoral dissertation titled On the Lymphatic vessels of the Lungs. The following year, I.O. Sikorsky was sent for a five-year research fellowship at the St. Petersburg Medico-Surgical Academy, where, under the supervision of Professor I.M. Balinsky from 1875 to 1876, he worked in psychiatry and medical psychology. From 1882 to 1885, he worked as a physician at St. Nicholas Hospital. In 1886, he assumed the chair in Kyiv. I.O. Sikorsky extensively studied childhood psychoses and developmental disorders. As early as 1881, his work on stuttering and articulation disorders appeared, which was subsequently published in an expanded German edition in 1895. His work On the Phenomena of Fatigue During Mental Work (1879) is also of considerable interest. In 1884, his monograph Upbringing in Early Childhood was published, followed later by studies on psychopathic epidemics.

Toward the end of his teaching career, he published two textbooks: "General Psychology with Physiognomy" (1904) and "Fundamentals of Theoretical and Clinical Psychiatry" (1910). In these works, Sikorsky emphasizes that "...one of the most important Selection/31.html">Methods of Studying the psyche is the study of facial expressions, pulse, Respiration, and posture in works of art...", and argued: "It is incorrect to assume that only expressed statements are taken into account in so-called subjective methods. We evaluate not only the words we hear, but also the strength, expression, and timbre of the voice, often understanding without words through other undeniable and objective indicators whose innervation originates from cortical and, in part, subcortical centers."

For 10 years (from 1895 to 1905), I.O. Sikorsky published the journal "Voprosy nervno-psikhicheskoy meditsiny" in Kyiv, subtitled: "A Journal Dedicated to Psychiatry, Nervous Pathology, Physiological Psychology, Neuro-Psychiatric Hygiene, etc."

Ivan Mikhailovich Balinsky (1827–1902). In 1842, after graduating from the classical gymnasium in Warsaw, Balinsky entered the Medico-Surgical Academy as an external student, graduating in 1846 with a gold medal. In 1855, he defended his doctoral dissertation and was appointed assistant professor at the St. Petersburg Medico-Surgical Academy, where he lectured on pediatric diseases. In 1857, a new department—the Department of Psychiatry—was established at the academy, and the teaching of psychiatry was entrusted to I.M. Balinsky. He was a talented lecturer; students listened enthusiastically to his lectures for four hours straight. Balinsky began the ORGANIZATION OF THE first psychiatric clinic and department in Russia by developing a curriculum. Even in this early work, his independent scientific thinking and critical attitude toward existing scientific views were apparent. He viewed mental disorders not in isolation, but in connection with various physical illnesses. He paid great attention to the methods of observing and examining the mentally ill, analyzing their pathological phenomena, and providing patient care and treatment.

Under I.M. Balinsky, the teaching process reached a high level. While lecturing on psychiatry, he made extensive use of patient demonstrations and actively involved his students in clinical analysis. Balinsky's skill as an educator was praised by I.O. Sikorsky: "Balinsky's lectures, which frequently consisted of an analysis of a newly admitted patient, were distinguished by such boldness of psychological and clinical analysis that they might have seemed more like brilliant hypotheses than strict scientific reality...".

In the first half of 1876, he resigned from the academy of his own accord. Being an extraordinarily modest man, he wrote: "I have not written any monumental scientific treatise, nor will I leave behind any pivotal contribution to the epoch of scientific work, but I have tried to do everything so that my colleagues who come to my clinic might find the necessary opportunities there to learn and work for science as they ought..."

Ivan Pavlovich Merzheevsky (1838–1908). Systematic scientific work at the psychiatric clinic of the Military Medical Academy began under Balinsky's successor, the broadly educated Professor I.P. Merzheevsky. In 1867, he defended his dissertation "Clinical Study of Violent Patients," which already displayed elements of the physiological-clinical approach that later became the foundation of the St. Petersburg psychiatric school. In his dissertation work, based on the study of body weight, Temperature, and METABOLISM in psychitric patients experiencing agitation, Merzheevsky established that agitation sharply increases all aspects of metabolism, which is why agitated psychiatric patients require plenty of fresh air. In his studies on the brains of microcephalics, Merzheevsky rejected The Theory of atavism as a cause of feeblemindedness, proving instead that the Brain of a microcephalic merely exhibits developmental arrest.

Alongside the study of child psychiatry, Merzheevsky's associates investigated mental disorders of late life and changes in The Nervous system resulting from various harmful external influences and poisonings (starvation, poisoning with alcohol, phosphorus, asbestos, atropine, leather lacquering, anemia, thyroid removal, etc.).

I.P. Merzheevsky made a major scientific contribution to the microanatomy of progressive paralysis. He was the first to note the degeneration of myelin nerve fibers, Changes in the ependyma of the ventricles, and vascular alterations in this disease, proving the inflammatory Nature of the process accompanying neovascularization.

In 1893, at the age of 60, Merzheevsky chose not to run for re-election for the next 5-year term, vacating the chair for younger forces.

Viktor Khrisanfovich Kandinsky (1849–1889). In 1880, V.Kh. Kandinsky, a physician at the St. Nicholas Hospital in Petersburg, published "On Pseudohallucinations," which gained worldwide renown due to its classical description of pseudohallucinations. In this book, based on the distinctions between a) vivid figurative representation—memory—fantasy; b) pseudohallucinations; and c) true hallucinations, Kandinsky sought to resolve one of the most important questions regarding the physiological mechanism of sensory perception of the objective world.

Of great interest is Kandinsky's work "Common-Access Psychological Studies" (1881), in which he presented his views on consciousness in an accessible form. He defined psychopathy as a form of mental deformity and personality disharmony. Although mentally ill himself, Kandinsky utilized not only observation and patient interviews in his clinical research, but also retrospective self-description. He was a proponent of the nosological approach in psychiatry and even proposed his own classification of mental illnesses.

Sergey Sergeyevich Korsakov (1854–1900). The monument to S.S. Korsakov standing in front of the clinic named in his honor bears the inscription: "Scientist, Thinker, Psychiatrist, Humanist." One must admit that this concise characterization is exceptionally apt, pointing to the core traits that comprised the intellectual profile of one of our most outstanding domestic psychiatrists.

Korsakov's works in clinical psychiatry are of particular significance. He was a recognized clinician and psychiatrist of world renown who began building nosological psychiatry even earlier than Kraepelin, who is officially recognized as the founder of the nosological approach.

Korsakov's internationally renowned work is his dissertation on polyneuritic psychosis characterized by a specific memory impairment and pseudoreminiscences. In addition to his doctrine of memory disorders, Korsakov's doctrine on the acute development of psychoses is highly original. In 1891, the question of acute psychoses was a program topic at the 4th Pirogov Congress. It was there that Korsakov presented a series of fascinating propositions demonstrating that even then—that is, 10 years before Kraepelin—he was contemplating the necessity of establishing nosological psychiatry. S.S. Korsakov's classification was one of the most comprehensive and original classifications of mental illnesses at that time.

S.S. Korsakov was not only a great clinician; throughout his career, he also carried out extensive public, organizational, medical, and psychiatric work. Furthermore, the scientist worked in the anatomical-physiological direction. He published a "Course of Psychiatry" (1893) and numerous papers included in his "Selected Works" (1954). S.S. Korsakov contributed to the Structure/175.html">Implementation of an organized, humane system of psychiatric care.

The traditional foundations of our psychiatry—materialism, humanism, connection with general medicine, and public engagement—found their fullest and most complete expression for their time in the person of S.S. Korsakov. Making extensive use of his scientific legacy, the modern reader remembers S.S. Korsakov himself with respect and gratitude.

Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (1857–1927) was another prominent psychoneurologist. From the very first years of his scientific career, Bekhterev studied The structure of the brain. Starting in 1885, Bekhterev headed the Department of Psychiatry in Kazan, and from 1893 onward, at the Military Medical Academy. In V.M. Bekhterev's work, the St. Petersburg anatomical-physiological approach reached its highest development. Throughout his life, Bekhterev was distinguished by an enormous capacity for work and responded to every new issue in neurology and psychiatry; by the end of his life, the number of his published works totaled 600. Between 1892 and 1896, his two-volume work "Conduction Pathways of the Spinal and Brain" appeared—the first systematic work in this field, which brought him worldwide fame. V.M. Bekhterev was one of the first in the world to study the cortical regulation of so-called "autonomous processes." From 1893, Bekhterev edited the psychoneurological journal "Neurological Bulletin." In the field of psychiatry, Bekhterev primarily sought to find anatomical-physiological evidence for psychopathological phenomena. Mental illnesses were for him not merely Diseases of the brain, but disruptions of specific cerebral mechanisms. Bekhterev took an interest in the manifestations of hypnosis and methods of hypnotherapy, introducing these methods into practice. His school contributed much to the development of experimental psychology in Russia.

It is difficult to characterize the tempestuous scientific activity of V.M. Bekhterev. He was a researcher on a grand scale, a man of astonishing focus who quickly ignited upon learning of any scientific novelty. Thanks to his works, he secured a prominent place in world science.

Vladimir Petrovich Serbsky (1859–1917). Following the death of S.S. Korsakov, the Department of Psychiatry in Moscow was headed by V.P. Serbsky. He was a faithful follower of Korsakov and particularly highlighted all the Features of the Korsakovian school. Among Serbsky's scientific works, special mention should be made of his dissertation "Forms of Mental Disorders Described Under the Name of Catatonia" (1890). In this work, following Korsakov's lead, Serbsky emphasized that catatonic symptoms occur in A wide variety of diseases and, apart from dementia praecox, are particularly frequent in amence. Of great interest is V.P. Serbsky's article "On the Question of Dementia Praecox" (1902), in which he criticizes Kraepelin, pointing out the impossibility of delineating psychoses on The basis of predetermined prognoses. For a long time, he taught forensic psychiatry at the Faculty of Law and published a "Course of Forensic Psychiatry." Serbsky's textbook was published in 1907, with a second edition following in 1912. Serbsky was distinguished by great firmness of character and never retreated an inch from what he considered to be right.

Pyotr Borisovich Gannushkin (1875–1933). The prominent clinician P.B. Gannushkin, a student of S.S. Korsakov, is quite rightly considered the founder of The Doctrine of borderline states and a theorist of out-patient psychiatric care. P.B. Gannushkin became a world-renowned scientist thanks to his fundamental work on personality anomalies—psychopathies—in which he described their various clinical forms, introduced a classification, and defined the core diagnostic criteria known in psychiatry as the "Gannushkin triad."

Tikhon Ivanovich Yudin (1879–1949). After graduating from Moscow University, he completed a clinical residency at the psychiatric clinic of the same university, headed by V.P. Serbsky. Having defended his doctoral dissertation, he became one of P.B. Gannushkin's principal assistants at the Department of Psychiatry of Moscow State University. In 1924, he was elected to the Department of Psychiatry at Kazan State University, where he soon became dean of the medical faculty and editor of the "Kazan Medical Journal." In 1932, he transferred to Kharkiv, where he directed the Ukrainian Psychoneurological Institute and headed the Department of Psychiatry at the Kharkiv Medical Institute. During the Great Patriotic War, T.I. Yudin headed the scientific division of a neuropsychiatric hospital, and from 1943 onward, he headed the department at the 3rd Moscow Medical Institute, working there until the end of his life. All his works and scientific research lie in the fields of Schizophrenia, symptomatic psychoses, brain injuries, and organizational psychiatry. T.I. Yudin's "Essays on The history of Domestic Psychiatry" were written with an exceptional love for all that is progressive in psychiatry and with pride in his Homeland.

Viktor Pavlovich Protopopov (1880–1957). After graduating from the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg, Protopopov remained at the Department of Psychiatry. In the 1920s, his works appeared in which he attempted to combine psychopathological and biochemical studies of patients with investigations into the features of their conditioned reflex activity. In 1909, working in V.M. Bekhterev's laboratory, V.P. Protopopov described in his dissertation "On Associative-Motor Reactions to Auditory Stimuli" the methodology for obtaining a conditioned motor (defensive) reflex to electrical stimulation of a dog's paw.

The work of Protopopov and his associates expanded extensively when he moved to Kharkiv in 1923 and assumed THE POSITION OF Director of the Institute of Psychiatry. In Kharkiv, he initially acted as a representative of Bekhterevian reflexology. In 1924–1926, his books "Introduction to Reflexology" and "Psychology, Reflexology, and the Doctrine of Behavior" were published. In addition, he took an active part in publishing the journal "Ukrainian Herald of Experimental Pedagogy and Reflexology."

Later, his physiological views drew closer to those of Pavlov, and he integrated them more tightly with clinical practice and biochemical metabolic studies. Beginning in 1924, V.P. Protopopov undertook a systematic Study of the pathological physiology of schizophrenia. His initial studies of defensive motor Reflexes in schizophrenia patients revealed the absence, weakness, or rapid exhaustion of these reflexes, as well as a tendency for patients to fall into a state of Sleep under overload with stimuli; investigations of vascular reactions in schizophrenics revealed alterations in the normal plethysmographic curve, etc. Protopopov's associates found residual nitrogen and elevated ammonia nitrogen in the Blood of catatonics, an increase in Aromatic Compounds in the blood and urine, increased urinary excretion of paired compounds and decreased rhodanide compounds—indicating depressed oxidation processes and the accumulation of nitrogenous waste products, which serve as the cause of cellular weakness.

V.P. Protopopov made a major contribution to the development of psychiatric care by striving to organize a psychiatric service in every region of Ukraine.

Yakov Pavlovych Frumkin (1902–1978) was a pupil of P.B. Gannushkin. He defended his doctoral dissertation titled "On the Types of Epileptic Dementia" in 1932. From 1932 to 1975, he headed the Department of Psychiatry at the Kyiv Medical Institute named after O.O. Bohomolets. He focused on pressing issues in the theory and practice of clinical psychiatry, as well as the methodology of psychiatric Diagnosis in Epilepsy, schizophrenia, infectious pathology, and geriatric psychiatry. He provided detailed descriptions of the Clinical forms of epilepsy and types of epileptic dementia, the Clinical Features of arteriosclerotic hallucinosis, the "Frumkin triad" (in schizophrenia), and other conditions. He published numerous monographs and textbooks, including "Psychiatric Terminology" (1939), "A Brief Cytology/practical/136.html">Differential diagnosis OF Certain Forms of Mental Illness" (1951), and "Trace Effects in the Clinic of Psychopathology" (1978, co-authored by S.M. Livshytz), among others.

Yosyp Adamovych Polishchuk (1907–1978) began his career as an assistant at the Department of Psychiatry of the Kharkiv Medical Institute and as a senior researcher at the Ukrainian Psychoneurological Research Institute (1934–1941). From 1944, he worked as an associate professor in the Department of Psychiatry at the Kyiv Institute for Advanced Training of Physicians. Following the death of V.P. Protopopov in 1957, Y.A. Polishchuk headed this department for 24 years. He investigated the etiopathogenesis and treatment of schizophrenia and manic-depressive psychosis using biochemical, immunological, and Genetic Methods. He was the first (in 1951) to introduce The concepts of hypoenergism for schizophrenia and hyperenergism for manic-depressive psychosis, described several syndromes from a biochemical perspective, and proposed methods for addressing their Metabolic Disorders. He authored four monographs: "Biochemical Syndromes in Psychiatry" (1967), "An Atlas for Experimental Research into Human Mental Activity" (1968), "Schizophrenia" (1979), and "Clinical Genetics in Psychiatry" (1981).

Heorhiy Leonidovych Voronkov (1923–1992) was a World War II veteran and a participant in the Victory Parade on Red Square in Moscow. In 1953, he graduated from the Kyiv Medical Institute. From 1953 to 1992, he served as an assistant and later as an associate professor at the same institute, and from 1975 to 1991, as the HEAD of the Department of Psychiatry. For 18 years, he was the Chief Psychiatrist and Chairman of the Problem Commission on Psychiatry of the Ministry of Health and the Academy of Medical Sciences. In 1972, he defended his doctoral dissertation on "The problem of Onsets and Early Diagnosis of Epilepsy." He identified risk factors for epilepsy and described a specific form of epilepsy known as cephalgolepsy. His research interests included alcoholism, symptomatic mental

disorders, and the Organization of Psychiatric care. He authored nearly 100 scientific papers, including "Educational Atlas of Psychiatry" (1962) and "Psychiatry: Tables and Diagrams" (1977). He also edited the "Psychiatrist's Handbook" (1990). He was a laureate of the Academician Protopopov Prize (1990).

CONTROL QUESTIONS.

1. Characterize the first period in the development of psychiatry.

2. Characterize the second period in the development of psychiatry.

3. Characterize the third period in the development of psychiatry.

4. Characterize the fourth period in the development of psychiatry.

5. Describe the activities of Philippe Pinel.

6. Characterize the fifth period in the development of psychiatry.

7. What was Emil Kraepelin's contribution to the development of psychiatry?

8. Characterize the sixth period in the development of psychiatry.

9. Who is considered the founder of psychiatry in Slavic countries?

10. P.I. Kovalevsky and his professional activities.

11. V.M. Bekhterev and his contribution to the development of neurology and psychiatry.

12. V.Kh. Kandinsky's achievements in the study of pseudohallucinations.

13. S.S. Korsakoff's work as a humanist scientist.

14. Which scientists contributed to the development of Ukrainian psychiatry?