BIOTECHNOLOGY - V. H. Gerasymenko - 2006

INTRODUCTION

The 21st century is often called the "golden age" of biology. This certainly applies to one of its key fields — biotechnology.

Biotechnology is a branch of biology that explores the application of BIOLOGICAL OBJECTS AND chemo-biological processes to produce a diverse range of products aimed at solving economic and societal challenges.

Humankind has actually utilized certain biotechnological processes across various practical spheres since ancient times. However, it was only in the 1970s that biotechnology emerged as an independent science, built upon the foundations of molecular biology, Cell and Introduction/32.html">Genetic Engineering, and the widespread application of microbiology, biochemistry, bioorganic chemistry, and other disciplines. Today, modern biotechnology stands as a priority area of contemporary science, driving scientific and technological progress while serving as a powerful tool to address raw material, food, energy, environmental, and economic challenges. It is applied to tackle numerous practical issues related to enhancing Human and Animal healthcare, increasing food resources, supplying industry with raw Materials, utilizing cost-effective renewable Energy Sources, organizing zero-waste production, mitigating adverse anthropogenic impacts on the environment, and across various other human activities.

As a science, biotechnology represents a more mature stage in The Development of biology, one that currently and in the future will focus on creating wholes from previously studied elements (Hleba Yu., 2002).

A powerful foundation for modern biotechnology was established when Oswald Avery (1944) demonstrated the Biological Role of DNA, proving that this polymeric chemical compound serves as the carrier of hereditary information. Subsequently, Francis Crick and James Watson (1953) made their epoch-making discovery by determining the double-helix Structural Organization of DNA. Thanks to this breakthrough, subsequent efforts to elucidate the Biochemical Mechanisms of DNA function led to a full molecular understanding of biological Specificity.

The most remarkable achievement of biotechnology at the dawn of the 21st century was the completion of the detailed Human Genome map. This milestone deepens our understanding of humanity's relationship with other planetary organisms, illuminates what unites us and what sets us apart from other life forms, and equips us with advanced approaches to uncover the causes of diseases and discover novel treatments.

It is fascinating to note that the length of The nucleotide sequence in The Human Genome is only three times greater than that of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. At the same time, this underscores the immense complexity of developmental control mechanisms that must be decoded to explain such a complex phenomenon as The Emergence of humankind (Day P., 2002).

Over the past 60 years—spanning the era since Avery's discovery—biology has witnessed extraordinary breakthroughs alongside those already mentioned: the development of Recombinant DNA technology, which forms The basis of genetic engineering; hybridoma technology; and the sequencing of the genomes of Bacteria, Yeast, nematodes, the model plant Arabidopsis, and humans. These decades have also seen the first steps in Gene Therapy, successful animal cloning attempts, the construction of artificial Chromosomes, and the establishment of conditions and capabilities for gene transfer that transcend the species barriers limiting classical breeding. Furthermore, the structures of the nucleosome and the RNA polymerase complex have been deciphered.

Over 30 years ago, Methods were developed to localize genes alongside their expression-controlling elements. Even more importantly, techniques were established to transfer these elements into any microorganism or plant, enabling the modification of organisms to generate new lines with tailored properties designed to meet human needs. In turn, the functioning of these modified organisms provides insights into The behavior of specific genes within The Genome—thereby identifying gene Functions (functional Genomics)—as well as revealing the interactions between genes and their regulatory sequences, ultimately harnessing novel traits for the benefit of humanity.

A crucial milestone enabling genetic engineering manipulations was the discovery of Enzymes that facilitate the "cutting" and "pasting" (ligation) of DNA fragments.

Equally impressive are the speed and scale at which scientific research translates into The production of novel pharmaceutical products and agricultural goods. Biotechnology-derived therapeutics—such as Insulin, somatotropic hormone, interferons, or the polio vaccine—allow for the creation of more effective treatments with fewer side effects, as they target specific molecules altered by disease processes.

In agriculture, the rapid adoption by American farmers of genetically modified (GM) crops for food production and quality enhancement is striking. A prime example is the development of biotechnology for synthesizing vitamin A in "Golden Rice." Approximately two-thirds of all food products in U.S. retail networks contain GM ingredients. However, in many developed nations (particularly EU member states), The Use of GM products faces strong public resistance. Paradoxically, diabetic patients readily use insulin produced by modified microorganisms for their Treatment without hesitation.

The application of genetic engineering enables the production of GM plants not only for food supply but also for addressing environmental challenges—such as cleaning up sites polluted with chemicals and toxic metals (phytoremediation)—and utilizing GM plants as "factories" or "bioreactors" to produce pharmaceutical Proteins (primarily Vaccines) and other BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE SUBSTANCES.

It has been demonstrated that specific lines of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) can eliminate cadmium and and lead from contaminated soils, while aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms can be employed to remediate pesticides, alkanes, benzene, toluene, xylene, and polycyclic aromatic Hydrocarbons.

Deep fundamental research in genetic engineering has proven that genes can be transferred between different taxonomic groups of living organisms regardless of sexual incompatibility. This is one of the distinct advantages of the biotechnological approach in addressing applied problems, allowing researchers to transfer genes of interest, along with their regulatory elements, from one Organism to another and ensure their expression. For instance, animal Cells or bacteria can serve as sources of genes conferring drought and cold tolerance to plants.

Recognizing the unique properties of METABOLISM/14.html">Chloroplasts—specifically their capacity to synthesize and accumulate proteins much more intensively than E. coli or nuclear-transformed plants—scientists are actively developing corresponding chloroplast-based biotechnologies (Maliga P., 2002).

New methods and technologies in Plant Genetic Engineering have been established for the biotechnological production of pharmaceutical proteins, notably Antibodies (Hleba Yu., 2002), the expression of human somatotropic hormone in tobacco chloroplasts, the production of pharmaceutical and diagnostic preparations, and plant-derived oral vaccines (Maliga P., 2002).

There is also strong potential for producing biologically active substances through plant viral vector systems (Blum Ya., 2002). Tobacco plants, for instance, are utilized to produce personalized vaccine formulations tailored to individual patients with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (a type of Cancer). This is achieved by transferring a gene associated with the patient's specific lymphoma via a viral vector to synthesize a customized target protein. Notably, the cost of therapeutic proteins produced this way is significantly lower than that of using mammalian cell cultures for the same purpose (Erwin B., 2002).

The incorporation of genes encoding viral coat proteins into the plant genome provides effective protection against agricultural pests (Caddle M., 2002).

According to Peter Day (USA), a participant in the electronic round table Structure/133.html">Discussion featuring world-renowned authorities in Biotechnology and Genetics organized in Ukraine (Prof. Blum Ya. B.) in 2001, biotechnology will become one of the most vital tools for establishing sustainable agricultural production. This will be essential in the new century to feed a rapidly growing global population. Currently, over 800 million people worldwide suffer from hunger, predominantly in South Asia and Africa. Poverty drives undernutrition among three-quarters of the Earth's rural population. Biotechnology provides a powerful new tool that complements existing methods for boosting agricultural productivity and, consequently, stimulates economic growth in developing nations.

In less developed countries (compared to Europe), including Ukraine, biotechnology could serve as the same springboard to wealth and prosperity that electronics and computer technology provided for many Asian nations (Blum Ya., Hleba Yu., 2002).

The USA and the EU remain the world's leading powerhouses for biotechnological research. China, Brazil, and India have embarked on the accelerated deployment of genetic engineering achievements, primarily in agricultural production and plant cultivation (Caddle M., 2002). The United States currently maintains its leading position, closely followed or matched by Western Europe, while China has recently made a massive leap forward, particularly in agricultural biotechnology. Today, China accounts for 6% of the global acreage dedicated to genetically modified crops.

According to Blum Ya. (2002), despite Ukraine's significant lag behind global leaders, the country still retains a critical reserve of scientific potential to advance knowledge and technologies and successfully integrate them into industrial production.

Implementing the advancements of modern biotechnology in Ukraine's agro-industrial sector requires the training of highly qualified specialists in molecular biology, as well as genetic and cellular engineering, to support knowledge-intensive production. Addressing this challenge makes the provision of relevant educational literature essential.

Currently, Ukraine lacks a domestic, Ukrainian-language textbook on biotechnology in animal husbandry and veterinary medicine for students of agricultural higher education institutions. The previous textbook on biotechnology, published in 1989, is outdated and, moreover, available only in Russian.

This newly prepared textbook has been developed in full compliance with the curriculum requirements for biotechnology and is free from the shortcomings of the previous edition.

The course aims to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of the Current state of biotechnology, its fundamental principles, and the Practical Application of its developments in veterinary medicine, animal husbandry, ecology, and related economic sectors.

Throughout the General Biotechnology course, students master the foundations of cellular and genetic engineering as engineering approaches aimed at generating novel Genetic information through cell Hybridization and reconstruction, creating hybrid (recombinant) DNA, and practically applying cell cultures and recombinant DNA to produce biologically active substances.

An essential section of Applied Biotechnology is engineering enzymology, which relies on the USE OF IMMOBILIZED enzymes. Immobilization techniques have yielded novel formulations of biologically active substances with prolonged action, which are utilized both in biomanufacturing and independently as prophylactic and therapeutic agents.

Applied biotechnology covers Industrial processes for obtaining prophylactic, diagnostic, medicinal, feed, and biologically active substances—such as Antibiotics, Hormones, interferons, proteins, and Essential Amino Acids—used in veterinary and human medicine, animal husbandry, and the food industry.

The biotechnology curriculum also covers bioconversion technologies, which ensure the recycling and bioconversion of agricultural and livestock waste into biogas, high-quality organic fertilizers, and protein-vitamin feed supplements. These technologies help protect the environment from anthropogenic pollution and maintain sanitary, hygienic, and ecological well-being.

The knowledge students acquire regarding both the fundamental principles of biotechnology and operational bioprocesses will enable the training of competitive professionals capable of working in modern agro-industrial production and accelerating Ukraine's integration into the global educational community, the World Trade Organization, the European Union, and beyond.