Human Anatomy - Kotsan I. Y. 2009

Respiratory System
Phylogenetic and Ontogenetic Development of Respiratory Organs

The delivery of oxygen to the Cells of a living Organism and the removal of carbon dioxide constitute The process of respiration. From an evolutionary perspective, Two Types of respiration are distinguished: general respiration, in which the entire body surface participates in the process, and organ respiration, where this function is performed by an organ or organ system that has developed evolutionarily. General respiration occurs in unicellular and lower Multicellular Organisms. Organ respiration is characteristic of all Chordates, including humans. With the advent of organ respiration, general respiration does not disappear entirely in the organism, but persists to a greater or lesser extent (gas exchange through the Skin).

The Structure of respiratory Organs depends on the environmental conditions inhabited by a given organism. In aquatic animals, gills are formed as outgrowths of the pharyngeal mucosa. Water circulating through the gill slits washes over the gill filaments, which are rich in Blood capillaries, and oxygen from the water diffuses into the animal's blood. Carbon dioxide is released back into the water through the same mechanism.

With the transition of vertebrates to land, the gill-breathing type is replaced by pulmonary respiration. Pulmonary respiration is more advanced compared to gill breathing, as oxygen is absorbed by the blood directly from the air rather than from water. The respiratory organs (Lungs and respiratory tract) achieve complex development in terrestrial animals. Already in amphibians, a Larynx with Muscles, a Trachea, and bronchial buds appear within the respiratory tract system. The lungs of amphibians resemble smooth-walled sacs that also function as a hydrostatic apparatus. In tailless amphibians, the walls of the pulmonary sac have a spongy structure and perform a respiratory function. In reptiles, the larynx, trachea, and two Bronchi are developed, with cartilages (incomplete or complete rings) present in the walls of the latter. Within their spongy lungs, second- and third-order intrapulmonary bronchi emerge. In birds, the respiratory tract includes the larynx, trachea, and bronchi. Their spongy lungs are permeated by a system of interconnected bronchi. In the Respiratory system of mammals, the vocalization organ—the larynx—reaches a high level of development; new cartilages appear within it: the epiglottis and the thyroid Cartilage, the latter being associated with sound production and a high degree of Differentiation of the laryngeal muscles. The Trachea and Bronchi of mammals possess a cartilaginous Skeleton, predominantly in the form of C-shaped cartilaginous half-rings opening posteriorly. Intrapulmonary bronchi branch repeatedly and terminate in bronchioles with alveoli. Mammalian lungs are divided into lobes and covered on all sides by the Pleura.

The human respiratory organs are of endodermal origin and begin to form at the end of the third week of embryonic development as an outgrowth of the ventral wall of the foregut, immediately caudal to The Thyroid Gland diverticulum. This hollow outpouching elongates in a ventrocaudal direction. Its cranial end gives rise to the larynx, the caudal end to the trachea, and a paired outgrowth at its caudal end soon forms the right and left bronchial and pulmonary buds. On each lung bud, spherical protrusions appear corresponding to the future lung lobes: three on the right lung bud and two on the left. New outgrowths form at the ends of these protrusions, and subsequently even more, creating a pattern reminiscent of The Development of an alveolar gland. In this manner, the bronchial tree is formed by the sixth month of development, at the branching ends of which acini with alveoli develop. The mesenchyme surrounding each lung bud gives rise to Connective Tissue structures, smooth muscles, and cartilaginous plates in the bronchi. The visceral pleura develops from the visceral layer of the ventral mesoderm (splanchnopleure), while the parietal pleura derives from the parietal layer of the ventral mesoderm (somatopleure). The formation of the pleural sacs occurs concurrently with the Development of the lungs, Heart, and Pericardium. The development of the Nasal cavity and the bony framework of the External Nose is closely linked to the development of the Skull bones, Oral Cavity, and olfactory organs.

Basic Latin terms

Respiratory system — systema respiratorium

Nose — nasus

External nose — nasus externus

ROOT of nose — radix nasi

Apex of nose — apex nasi

Dorsum of nose — dorsum nasi

Alae of nose — alae nasi

Nostrils — nares

Nasal cartilages — cartilagines nasi

Lateral nasal cartilage — cartilago nasi lateralis

Greater alar cartilage — cartilago alaris major

Lesser alar cartilages — cartilagines alares minores

Nasal septal cartilage — cartilago septi nasi

Vomeronasal cartilage — cartilago vomeronasalis

Accessory nasal cartilages — cartilagines nasales accessoriae

Nasal cavity — cavitas nasi

Choanae — choanae

Nasal septum — septum nasi

Superior nasal concha — concha nasalis superior

Middle nasal concha — concha nasalis media

Inferior nasal concha — concha nasalis inferior

Cavernous (venous) plexuses of the conchae — plexus (venosi) cavernosi concharum

Superior nasal meatus — meatus nasi superior

Middle nasal meatus — meatus nasi medius

Inferior nasal meatus — meatus nasi inferior

Nasal vestibule — vestibulum nasi

Nasal limen — limen nasi

Respiratory region — regio respiratoria

Olfactory region — regio olfactoria

Larynx — larynx

Laryngeal inlet — aditus laryngis

Aryepiglottic folds — plicae aryepiglotticae

Laryngeal cavity — cavitas laryngis

Laryngeal vestibule — vestibulum laryngis

Vestibular folds — plicae vestibulares

Vestibular cleft — rima vestibuli

Intermediate cavity of the larynx — cavitas laryngis intermedia

Vocal folds — plicae vocales

Laryngeal ventricle — ventriculum laryngis

Rima glottidis — rima glottigis

Intermembranous part — pars intermembranacea

Intercartilaginous part — pars intercartilaginea

Infraglottic cavity — cavitas infraglottica

Fibroelastic membrane of the larynx — membrana fibroelastica laryngis

Quadrangular membrane — membrana quadrangularis

Vestibular ligament — lig. vestibulare

Elastic cone — conus elasticus

Vocal fold / ligament — lig. vocale

Thyroid cartilage — cartilago thyroidea

Right lamina — lamina dextra

Left lamina — lamina sinistra

Laryngeal prominence — prominentia laryngea

Superior thyroid notch — incisura thyroidea superior

Inferior thyroid notch — incisura thyroidea inferior

Superior thyroid tubercle — tuberculum thyroideum superius

Inferior thyroid tubercle — tuberculum thyroideum inferius

Oblique line — linea obliqua

Superior horn — cornu superius

Inferior horn — cornu inferius

Cricoid cartilage — cartilago cricoidea

Arch of cricoid cartilage — arcus cartilaginis cricoideae

Lamina of cricoid cartilage — lamina cartilaginis cricoideae

Arytenoid articular surface — facies articularis arytenoidea

Thyroid articular surface — facies articularis thyroidea

Epiglottis — epiglottis

Epiglottic cartilage — cartilago epiglottica

Stalk of epiglottis — petiolus epiglottidis

Arytenoid cartilage — cartilago arytenoidea

Apex of arytenoid cartilage — apex cartilaginis arytenoideae

Base of arytenoid cartilage — basis cartilaginis arytenoideae

Articular surface — facies articularis

Vocal process — processus vocalis

Muscular process — processus muscularis

Anterolateral surface — facies anterolateralis

Colliculus — colliculus

Arcuate crest — crista arcuata

Oblong fovea — fovea oblonga

Triangular fovea — fovea triangularis

Medial surface — facies medialis

Posterior surface — facies posterior

Corniculate cartilage — cartilago corniculata

Cuneiform cartilage — cartilago cuneiformis

Laryngeal joints — articulationes laryngeales

Cricoarytenoid joint — articulatio cricoarytenoideae

Cricothyroid joint — articulatio cricothyroidea

Laryngeal ligaments — ligg. laryngis

Thyrohyoid membrane — membrana thyrohyoidea

Lateral thyrohyoid ligaments — ligg. thyrohyoidea lateralia

Hyoepiglottic ligament — lig. hyoepiglotticum

Thyroepiglottic ligament — lig. thyroepiglotticum

Cricothyroid ligament — lig. cricothyroideum

Median cricothyroid ligament — lig. cricothyroideum medianum

Fibroelastic membrane of larynx — membrana fibroelastica laryngis

Elastic cone — conus elasticus

Quadrangular membrane — membrana quadrangularis

Cricotracheal ligament — lig. cricotracheale

Muscles of the larynx — musculi laryngis

Lateral cricoarytenoid Muscle — m. cricoarytenoideus lateralis

Transverse arytenoid muscle — m. arytenoideus transversus

Oblique arytenoid muscle — m. arytenoideus obliquus

Aryepiglottic muscle — m. aryepiglotticus

Thyroarytenoid muscle — m. thyroarytenoideus

Vocal muscle — m. vocalis

Cricothyroid muscle — m. cricothyroideus

Trachea — trachea

Cervical part — pars cervicalis

Thoracic part — pars thoracica

Bifurcation of trachea — bifurcatio tracheae

Carina of trachea — carina tracheae

Tracheal cartilages — cartilagines tracheales

Annular ligaments — ligamenta anularia

Membranous wall — paries membranaceus

Tracheal glands — glandulae tracheales

Bronchi — bronchi

Bronchial tree — arbor bronchialis

Main bronchi (right and left) — bronchi principales (dexter et sinister)

Lobar bronchi — bronchi lobares

Segmental bronchi — bronchi segmentales

Bronchial branches — rami bronchiales

Lobular bronchus — bronchus lobularis

Terminal bronchioles — bronchioli terminales

Lungs — pulmones

Right lung — pulmo dexter

Left lung — pulmo sinister

Base of the lung — basis pulmonis

Apex of the lung — apex pulmonis

Subclavian groove — sulcus subclavius

Diaphragmatic surface — facies diaphragmatica

Costal surface — facies costalis

Medial surface — facies medialis

Vertebral part — pars vertebralis

Mediastinal surface — facies mediastinalis

Cardiac impression — impressio cardiaca

Hilum of the lung — hilus pulmonis

Root of the lung — radix pulmonis

Inferior border — margo inferior

Anterior border — margo anterior

Cardiac notch — incisura cardiaca

Lingula of the left lung — lingula pulmonis sinistri

Oblique fissure — fissura obliqua

Horizontal fissure — fissura horizontalis

Superior lobe — lobus superior

Middle lobe — lobus medius

Inferior lobe — lobus inferior

Interlobar surfaces — facies interlobares

Bronchopulmonary segments — segmenta bronchopulmonalia

Right lung, superior lobe — pulmo dexter, lobus superior

Apical segment — segmentum apicale (S_I)

Posterior segment — segmentum posterior (S_II)

Anterior segment — segmentum anterius (S_III)

Right lung, middle lobe — pulmo dexter, lobus medius

Lateral segment — segmentum laterale (S_IV)

Medial segment — segmentum mediale (S_V)

Right lung, inferior lobe — pulmo dexter, lobus inferior

Superior segment — segmentum superius (S_VI)

Medial basal segment — segmentum basale mediale (S_VII)

Anterior basal segment — segmentum basale anterius (S_VIII)

Lateral basal segment — segmentum basale laterale (S_IX)

Posterior basal segment — segmentum basale posterius (S_X)

Left lung, superior lobe — pulmo sinister, lobus superior

Apicoposterior segment — segmentum apicoposterius (S_I+II)

Anterior segment — segmentum anterius (S_III)

Superior lingular segment — segmentum lingulare superius (S_IV)

Inferior lingular segment — segmentum lingulare inferius (S_V)

Left lung, inferior lobe — pulmo sinister, lobus inferior

Superior segment — segmentum superius (S_VI)

Medial basal segment — segmentum basale mediale (S_VII)

Anterior basal segment — segmentum basale anterius (S_VIII)

Lateral basal segment — segmentum basale laterale (S_IX)

Posterior basal segment — segmentum basale posterius (S_X)

Lobule — lobulus

Alveolar tree (pulmonary acinus) — arbor alveolaris (acinus pulmonis)

Respiratory bronchioles — bronchioli respiratorii

Alveolar ducts — ductuli alveolares

Alveolar sacs — sacculi alveolares

Pulmonary alveoli — alveoli pulmonis

Pleura — pleura

Visceral pleura (pulmonary) — pleura visceralis (pulmonalis)

Parietal pleura — pleura parietalis

Costal part — pars costalis

Mediastinal part — pars mediastinalis

Diaphragmatic part — pars diaphragmatica

Pleural cavity — cavitas pleuralis

Costodiaphragmatic recess — recessus costodiaphragmaticus

Phrenicomediastinal recess — recessus phrenicomediastinalis

Costomediastinal recess — recessus costomediastinalis

Cupula of pleura — cupula pleurae

Mediastinum — mediastinum

Superior mediastinum — mediastinum superius

Inferior mediastinum — mediastinum inferius

Anterior mediastinum — mediastinum anterius

Middle mediastinum — mediastinum medium

Posterior mediastinum — mediastinum posterius