Pharmacognosy with Basics of Plant Biochemistry - Kovaliov V. M. 2004

General Part
A Brief Historical Outline of Pharmacognosy

The healing properties of plants have been known to humanity since ancient times, as confirmed by ethnographic and archaeological findings. The earliest written records of plant use are attributed to the Sumerians, who lived 6,000 years BCE.

The Assyrians recorded their knowledge of plants on clay tablets. In Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, a garden was established specifically for cultivating medicinal plants.

As early as the 11th century BCE, the Babylonians described several hundred plants, detailing their uses. The Egyptians are also known to have organized special expeditions to neighboring countries to acquire medicinal and aromatic herbs. The expertise of Egyptian medicine was later studied by Greek physicians. Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 377 BCE), the founder of scientific medicine, described 236 Medicinal Plants and synthesized knowledge about them in his work "Corpus Hippocraticum".

The Greek philosopher and founder of botany, Theophrastus (372-287 BCE), systematized the accumulated knowledge of healing flora in his work "Enquiry into Plants".

The "father of European pharmacognosy," Dioscorides (1st century CE), a Roman military physician of Greek origin, described all the plants used in ancient medicine. His work "De Materia Medica" (literally "medical matter"), illustrated with drawings of plants, was reprinted many times in Latin and served for centuries as a practical guide for physicians and apothecaries worldwide.

Roman physicians also knew and utilized medicinal plants. Pliny the Elder (1st century BCE), based on the knowledge accumulated by his predecessors, compiled the encyclopedia "Naturalis Historia", dedicating 12 of its volumes to medicine and pharmacy, in which 304 plants were described.

The Roman physician Galen (c. 130 – c. 200) applied Methods for Processing medicinal plants and introduced new dosage forms (such as alcohol tinctures) into practice, which are now known as galenicals.

Arab scholars made a significant contribution to The Development of medicine by adopting the traditions of Greek science. Medical schools were opened in several Eastern cities, where Greek and Roman books were translated into Arabic. Eastern physicians widely used complex prescriptions containing numerous types of medicinal plant Materials in various proportions.

In 977, the Arab physician Abu Mansur Muwaffaq wrote a book based on his medical experience, detailing 466 plants and 44 remedies of animal origin.

The Khwarazmian scholar Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (973 – c. 1050) authored a major work, "Pharmacognosy in Medicine". It contains information on 750 plant species, including their geographical ranges, descriptions, illustrations, and criteria for identifying the identity, purity, and quality of the raw materials.

Another prominent figure of Arabic medicine, the philosopher, scientist, and physician Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna), who lived from 980 to 1037, achieved the greatest renown. His multi-volume work, "The Canon of Medicine", contains descriptions of nearly 900 medicinal plants. A century later, the "Canon" was translated from Arabic into Latin. For five centuries, this work served as a textbook for physicians. It was studied in all European universities until the mid-18th century and remains of significant scientific value today.

The unique traditions of Chinese, Indian, and Tibetan medicine and philosophy are world-renowned. The earliest written source of ancient Chinese medicine is the "Book of Herbs" ("Shennong Ben Cao Jing"), dating back to 2600 BCE. It contains information on 900 plants and describes their uses. In the 16th century, the outstanding herbalist Li Shizhen lived and left behind a monumental work detailing 1,892 plants.

The vegetation of India is extraordinarily diverse. In the 1st and 2nd centuries BCE, books were written that synthesized knowledge of its medicinal plants. The oldest of these is the "Ayurveda" ("The Science of Life"). It was later expanded and revised by the physicians Charaka (1st century CE), Sushruta (4th century BCE), and Vagbhata (7th–8th centuries CE). It describes about 1,000 medicinal plants of the local flora. Eventually, the "Ayurveda" became the primary source for the "Gyud Shi" ("The Essence of Healing"), a book widely used by Tibetan doctors. Indian medicine influenced The formation of the Roman medical school, as well as Tibetan medicine, which is characterized by The Use of a vast array of medicinal plants—a subject of immense interest today.

Western European medicine, which was relatively undeveloped during the Middle Ages, was heavily influenced by ancient and Eastern civilizations. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the works of Dioscorides, Galen, and Apuleius were translated into European languages. Original European herbals date back to the 15th and 16th centuries. European pharmacies, modeled after Arab ones, stocked Iranian-Arabic, Indian, American, and African raw materials.

In the 16th century, the European physician Paracelsus (1493–1541) hypothesized that the therapeutic effect is not produced by the plant as a whole, but by its "quintessence"—the active ingredient. He synthesized ancient practices of choosing medicines based on their appearance, calling these specific features "signatures." The Doctrine of signatures is an expression of the ancient law of similarities, i.e., treating like with like.

In the 17th century, chemists L. Vauquelin, A. Fourcroy, J. Séguin, and A. Baumé conducted the first studies to investigate the active ingredients of plants.

The Swedish chemist and apothecary K. Scheele (1741–1786) was the first to isolate oxalic, malic, citric, and tartaric acids from medicinal plant materials, and he also discovered glycerin.

In 1806, the apothecary F. Sertürner isolated the pure alkaloid morphine from opium and demonstrated its Sleep-inducing activity.

In the mid-19th century, Glycosides, Tannins, saponins, resins, and other substances were isolated from plants. At the turn of the 20th century, Vitamins were discovered, and later, the biological activity of Flavonoids, coumarin derivatives, phytoncides, and Trace Elements was identified.

The Swiss pharmacognosist A. Tschirch made a major contribution to the development of microscopic analysis of medicinal raw materials. His three-volume handbook of pharmacognosy achieved worldwide recognition.

The roots of herbal medicine can be traced back to the prehistory of the Ukrainian state. These traditions originate in the culture of the Scythians, who inhabited the Northern Black Sea region from the Danube to the Don (7th century BCE – 1st century CE). This mysterious people left behind many enigmas, one of which is the pectoral from the Tovsta Mohyla (Fat Barrow). One of its fragments depicts a scene of a dental visit, which points to a high level of medicine in those times. This is also supported by other archaeological findings.

Over centuries, Slavic peoples developed traditions of harvesting and drying medicinal raw materials and preparing remedies from them. During pagan times, people were treated by "volkhvs, veduns, healers, and lechtsi" (traditional healers), who used plants, minerals, and animal products, including spruce, elm, linden, willow, sycamore maple, birch, rosehip, hawthorn, St. John's wort, horseradish, clay, ash, honey, and more. They were knowledgeable about various poisons, intoxicating (anesthetic), and emetic plants (such as ivy). Poppies and hemp served as sedatives. During wartime, arrowheads were coated with hellebore extract.

In the 10th century, the Slavic peoples acquired writing. Kyivan Rus adopted Christianity, which expanded the state's political ties. At the invitation of Volodymyr Monomakh, the Greek physician John Smer (1053–1125) arrived in Kyiv. At the same time, the first written mentions of healing with plants—"zelie"—appeared. This word meant herb, herbal infusion, or poison, giving rise to "zeleynyky"—individuals engaged in healing. Handwritten compilations, herbals, and medical books were also called "zeleynyky." The "Izbornik of Grand Prince Sviatoslav Yaroslavych" (1073) describes several medicinal plants used at the time. The "Hexameron" of John the Exarch (John of Bulgaria) (1263) contains brief accounts of the use of aconite, hemlock, and henbane, as well as the extraction of opium from poppies.

Chronicles record the name of Antipas (982–1073), a native of ancient Liubech in the Chernihiv region. He took the name Anthony on Holy Mount Athos and, together with Theodosius, founded the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra monastery in the 11th century. Anthony—this "wondrous physician," as the monastery chronicle called him—personally tended to the sick, giving them healing herbs to "partake of."

However, Agapitus was considered the most prominent among the monks. A native of Kyiv, he joined the monastery during Anthony's lifetime. The "Kyiv-Pechersk Patericon" relates that Agapitus followed Anthony's example in both ascetic devotion and the art of healing. His genuine compassion for the sick and his selflessness earned him the fame and respect of the people: "Word spread of him in the city that there was a physician in the monastery, and many sick people came and were made well." And further: "He [Agapitus] began to heal all the sick with his prayer, giving them herbs from his table." Agapitus treated patients through fasting, tailored their diets, and used remedies imported from other countries alongside plants of the local flora. The "Patericon" describes the most successful cases of Agapitus treating commoners, boyars, princes, and their relatives, including Prince Volodymyr Monomakh himself.

The chronicler refers to Petro Syriyanyn (Peter the Syrian), the famous physician of the Chernihiv Prince Mykola Davydovych who entered the Pechersk Monastery in 1106, as a "highly skilled healer." When "the blessed prince fell ill from his labors, [Peter] prepared herbs for his Treatment."

Hospitals were established at monasteries. Thus, the Nikon Chronicle records that Metropolitan Ephraim of Pereyaslav built a "bathhouse" in Pereyaslav (1091) and established a clinic where all parishioners were treated free of charge.

There were also female healers. Eupraxia Mstislavna (first half of the XII century), granddaughter of Volodymyr Monomakh, who received the name Zoe (meaning "life") at her coronation, became famous for her treatise "Ointments". The daughter of the Chernihiv prince, Euphrosyne, was "highly versed in the writings of Asclepius"—as medical books were called at the time. One early printed book mentions a peasant girl, Fevronia (XIII century), the daughter of a wild-beekeeper, who cured illnesses with herb-infused honey.

As for the methods used by the "healers," they were highly individualized, as the practitioners prepared medicines themselves using the secrets of their predecessors. The accumulated experience of folk medicine spread to the countries of Europe and Asia Minor. Following the example of Old Rus healers, Avicenna recommended honey, linden blossom, and birch sap for many ailments, referring to these remedies as "Rus medicines."

During the period of feudal fragmentation, followed by the Mongol-Tatar invasion—which captured and burned Kyiv in December 1240—difficult times lay ahead for the development of science and culture. The western Rus lands, Volhynia and Galicia, suffered the least from the invaders. Thus, they had the opportunity to preserve and develop the healing traditions of Kyivan Rus.

The history of medical care in the Galician region dates back to the XIII century, when Constance, wife of Prince Lev, allocated land and funds in 1270 to build a monastery with a shelter and a pharmacy for the sick near the Cathedral of St. John the Baptist. Shelters for the sick were also established at other monasteries. In particular, the famous "asclepeion" at the St. George's Monastery in Lviv. Similar institutions existed at other spiritual centers. Manyava Skete, the convent at the Pochaiv Lavra, and others helped people with prayer, advice, and folk remedies.

Medical reference books were created for the population. In 1484, the herbal "Herbarius maguntiae Impressum" was published in German. It contained descriptions and illustrations of many plants of the local flora. However, the foreign language hindered the distribution of the guide among the population of Galicia. Later, S. Falimierz compiled the herbal-medical book "O ziołach i o mocy ich" ("On Herbs and Their Potency", 1534) in Polish, which was the state language at the time. The first part of the book provides an illustrated description of over 500 medicinal remedies, while the second covers disease Diagnosis, Prevention, and treatment methods. The manual mostly describes herbs, their tinctures, and vegetable oils.

The Study of medicine and pharmacy at a professional level in Galicia began with the ESTABLISHMENT OF THE medical school "Collegium medicum" in Lviv (1661), and subsequently, up to 1918, at the Faculty of Philosophy of Lviv University within the "Studium farmaceutyczne". As an independent discipline, pharmacognosy was taught from 1855 at the university's medical-surgical department. In 1897, after the establishment of the Department of Pharmacology, a separate course in pharmacognosy was taught at the university's Faculty of Medicine. In 1920–1923, the course in plant Morphology and systematics for pharmacists was taught by T. F. Wilczynski. From 1929, he directed the course in pharmacognosy and botany at the Department of Pharmacology. Since then, T. F. Wilczynski was engaged in organizing the educational process, for which he purchased a building and plots of land for growing medicinal plants.

Only in 1940, after the Faculty of Medicine was granted the status of an institute, was an independent Department of Pharmacognosy with a course in botany established. It was headed by T. F. Wilczynski. During his years of leadership (1929–1964), he gathered a unique collection of medicinal plants from various climatic zones. At that time, it covered an area of 5.5 hectares and included about 1,500 species.

From 1964 to 1970, the educational and scientific work of the department was headed by I. P. Karpus, a student of T. F. Wilczynski. The chemical analysis of herbal raw materials was introduced into the department's educational process, and the plant collection in the nursery—which became one of the best bases for practical training in pharmacognosy—was constantly expanded. These traditions are continued by the Department of Pharmacognosy of the Danylo Halytsky Lviv State Medical University. The department staff, led by Professor L. Ya. Ladna-Rogovska (who headed the department from 1971 to 1996), began a systematic Study of the flora of the western regions of Ukraine to develop medicinal products. Scientific research continues to be conducted in two main areas: resource management and phytochemistry.

It is appropriate to consider the history of pharmacognosy in Left-Bank Ukraine in conjunction with Russian history, following the Treaty of Pereyaslav which united Ukraine and Russia.

The Zaporozhian Sich, which stood as a democratic stronghold amidst the dominance of the Russian Empire on Ukrainian territory, was distinguished by a well-organized system of medical care for the sick and wounded. It operated hospitals staffed with experienced bonesetters and folk barber-surgeons. Cossack beekeepers possessed extensive experience in herbal medicine. These individuals were long-lived, knowing the secrets of using medicinal plants, the proper times for harvesting them, and the specifics of their preparation.

Medicinal plants were well known to Ukrainians, as documented in the memoirs of foreign ambassadors, missionaries, and travelers who visited Ukraine during the 16th and 17th centuries. In medieval Ukraine, healing was primarily practiced by monks. Alongside them, folk healers also treated the sick, drawing on practical experience and knowledge inherited from ancient cultures.

The mid-17th century marked a significant milestone in the history of medical care. During the reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, a court institution—the Apothecary Order (Aptekarsky Prikaz)—was established, which later became a state Organization providing medical services to the royal court and the army. In 1654, the first school for training physicians and apothecaries was established in Russia. In 1673, 'apothecary gardens' were set up in Moscow to cultivate medicinal plants.

In 1717, Peter I issued a decree to establish an 'apothecary garden' in St. Petersburg. Later, a similar garden was created in Lubny. In 1730, the Lubny apothecary garden yielded its first harvest of domestic rhubarb, mint, belladonna, and foxglove, which were in high demand among doctors at the time. At the end of the 18th century, sugar beet began to be cultivated in the Lubny botanical garden, from which purified alcohol was produced for the first time in Russia.

The establishment of the Academy of Sciences by Peter I (1724) had a profound impact on the development of pharmacognosy. Russian botanical expeditions greatly contributed to the study of domestic flora. Based on expedition findings, Academician P. S. Pallas (1741-1811) compiled the 'Description of Plants of the Russian State with Illustrations'. In his works and scientific reports, I. I. Lepekhin (1740-1802) advocated for the creation of a pharmacopoeia based on domestic flora.

Between 1783 and 1788, the multi-volume work by N. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik 'Vrachebnoe Veshchestvoslovie' (Medical Materia Medica) was published.

Professor of Moscow University I. A. Dvigubsky created the atlas 'Illustrations of Plants, Chiefly Russian, Used in Medicine, and Those That Resemble Them and Are Often Mistaken for Them, but Possess No Medicinal Properties' (1828).

In 1798, the Medico-Surgical Academy opened in St. Petersburg. The Department of 'Materia Medica', which later became the Department of Pharmacy, was headed by Professor A. P. Nelyubin—author of the manual 'Pharmacognosy, or Chemical-Medicinal Prescriptions for the Preparation and Use of the Newest Medicines' (1827).

A. P. Nelyubin's successor, Academician Yu. K. Trapp (1814-1908), recognizing the need to develop methods for identifying herbal substances, assessing their quality, and detecting impurities, established pharmacognosy as an independent discipline and authored the first textbook.

The well-known works of V. A. Tikhomirov, Professor of Pharmacy at Moscow University, include 'A Course in Pharmacognosy' (1885), 'A Guide to the Study of Pharmacognosy' (1888-1890), and 'Textbook of Pharmacognosy' (1900).

The reference book by G. Dragendorff (1836-1898), Professor at Yuryev University, titled 'Medicinal Plants of Various Nations and Times: Their Use, Most Important Chemical Substances, and History' (1890), contains information on 12,000 species of medicinal plants.

Significant contributions to the development of pharmacognosy were made by Yu. K. Trapp's students: O. D. Chirikov, Professor of Pharmacy at Kharkiv University, and M. F. Mentin and D. O. Davydov, Professors of Pharmacy at Warsaw University. Their textbooks have been well known to many generations of pharmacists.

In 1919, efforts began to establish a domestic pharmaceutical industry using local raw materials, study the raw material base, introduce valuable plant species into cultivation, and train qualified pharmacists. In 1921, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR issued a decree on the harvesting and cultivation of medicinal plants. In 1930, specialized research stations for medicinal plants were established in various geographical Zones of the country (Bitca, Lubny, Mogilev, Olgino, Sukhumi, etc.), which in 1931 were subordinated to the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (VILAR).

The development of modern pharmacognosy is the result of the immense efforts of scientific teams at educational and research institutes. Significant contributions were made by Professors A. S. Ginzberg, A. F. Gammerman, D. M. Shcherbachev, A. Ya. Tomingas, and G. P. Yakovlev. A key role belongs to A. F. Gammerman, who headed the Department of Pharmacognosy at the Leningrad Chemical-Pharmaceutical Institute (now the St. Petersburg Chemical-Pharmaceutical Academy) for over 30 years. She created a classical course on the Diagnostics of medicinal plant materials and introduced commodity and phytochemical analyses into the curriculum. Her textbook 'Pharmacognosy' went through six editions. A. F. Gammerman's students included M. D. Shupinskaya and M. A. Kuznetsova (authors of a pharmacognosy textbook for pharmaceutical colleges), M. M. Molodozhnikov (a prominent scientist who worked on the acclimatization and Introduction of foreign medicinal plants), and former heads of pharmacognosy departments at several pharmaceutical universities: Professor K. F. Blinova (St. Petersburg Chemical-Pharmaceutical Academy), Associate Professor Z. F. Syuzeva (Perm Pharmaceutical Academy), Associate Professor L. I. Eristavi (Tbilisi Medical Institute), and Professor D. A. Muravyova (Pyatigorsk State Pharmaceutical Academy)—author of pharmacognosy textbooks for domestic and foreign students.

The Ukrainian school of pharmacognosy is represented by the State Scientific Center of Drugs (SSCD), the National Pharmaceutical Academy of Ukraine (NPhAU) in Kharkiv, the Departments of Pharmacognosy of the Zaporizhzhia Medical Institute (V. M. Sheludko, K. Ye. Koreshchuk) and the Lviv Medical Institute (T. D. Vilchynskyi, L. Ya. Ladna-Rohovska), and the Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Pharmacognosy of the Shupyk Kyiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education (T. V. Zinchenko, N. P. Maksyutina, O. M. Hrytsenko).

Under the leadership of Prof. D. G. Kolesnykov (SSCD), comprehensive studies of the flora of Ukraine were carried out to identify sources of herbal raw materials for The production of phytopharmaceuticals, technologies for isolating BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE SUBSTANCES were developed, and their properties were studied. About 90 phytopharmaceuticals were created; Methods for the semi-synthesis of cardiac glycosides were developed (V. T. Chornobai, I. Kh. Makarevych, M. F. Komisarenko); the dependence of biological activity on The Structure of α- and γ-pyrones, cardiosteroids, phenolic acids, and Other Compounds was studied (O. P. Prokopenko, Ya. I. Khadzhai, H. V. Obolentseva, V. I. Lytvynenko, M. F. Komisarenko, P. I. Bezruk); chemosystematic methods were used for the first time for theoretical and practical purposes; a technology for extracting herbal raw materials with liquefied gases was developed and introduced into production (O. P. Prokopenko, P. P. Vietrov, V. M. Mishev), along with a Technology for Obtaining phytoenzyme preparations (V. T. Chornobai, P. I. Kabachnyi, S. I. Dikhtiarov), and adsorption methods for obtaining morphine and other alkaloids from herbal raw materials.

The scientific school of pharmacognosy of the National Pharmaceutical Academy of Ukraine has long-standing traditions and research directions initiated by Professor M. O. Valiashko and continued since 1939 by Yu. H. Borysiuk and his followers. Initially, the research subjects of the Department of Pharmacognosy's scientists were essential and fatty oils, as well as the morphological and anatomical analysis of herbal raw materials from the Ukrainian flora. Since 1966, under the supervision of Associate Professor M. I. Borysov, research has been conducted on Phenolic Compounds and the comprehensive processing of herbal raw materials. In 1985, Professor V. M. Kovalov took charge of the department. The team is engaged in searching for new biologically active substances in plants used in traditional medicine and in agricultural waste, synthesizing analogs of natural flavonoids, anthraquinones, cardiosteroids, and amino sugar derivatives, standardizing herbal raw materials and preparations, and assessing medicinal plant resources. A collection nursery of pharmacopoeial plants has been established. In recent years, the phytopharmaceuticals glyphasin, oxaglucamine, flavanobol, lucerin, ononin-standard, and glucoribin have been developed.

For many years, the staff of the Department of Pharmacognosy with a Course in Botany of the Faculty of Pharmacy at Zaporizhzhia State Medical University have been systematically conducting phytochemical studies of biologically active compounds in plants of the genera Salvia, Thymus, Tagetes, Digitalis, Achillea, Mentha, and Valeriana. To ensure the rational use of the Ukrainian flora, the plant resources of the Zaporizhzhia region are being studied. A rapid method for monitoring the nitrate content in herbal raw materials has been proposed.

Scientists of the pharmaceutical departments of the Shupyk Kyiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education are fruitfully working on the creation of new medicines, the development of their technology, and quality control. Under the leadership of Professor N. P. Maksyutina, pharmaceutical drugs and therapeutic-prophylactic agents based on polyphenols and Polysaccharides are being developed. Pharmacognostic and phytochemical studies are led by Professors O. M. Hrytsenko and N. O. Vetiutnieva.

Through the joint efforts of pharmacognosists, chemists, biologists, pharmacologists, and clinicians, pharmacognosy continues its quest for a noble goal — the preservation of human health.