Human Anatomy (with Fundamentals of Dynamic and Sports Morphology) - Ivanitsky, M. F. 2008

General Dynamic Morphology
Preliminary Remarks

Dynamic Morphology (from the Greek dynamis meaning power) is the science that investigates the anatomical basis of human body movements and postures (the proportions and spatial arrangement of body parts). It provides an anatomical Analysis of the function of both the passive and active components of The Musculoskeletal System while assessing the functional state of all body Organs and systems. Dynamic morphology develops the fundamental principles of Functional Anatomy as applied to The Study of body mechanics. By examining the age-related, sexual, and somatotypological features of postures and movements, it is closely linked with developmental (p. 358) and constitutional (p. 382) morphology, as well as the STUDY OF MORPHOLOGICAL manifestations of Sexual Dimorphism (p. 400). Dynamic morphology is inextricably linked with biomechanics, addressing overlapping objectives. In its General Section, dynamic morphology serves a preparatory (propaedeutic) function for biomechanics, while biomechanics provides the data necessary to refine the specialized branches of dynamic morphology. Furthermore, dynamic morphology is closely related to sports morphology (see p. 485), one of the primary goals of which is to study the morphofunctional adaptations of the Organism under conditions of repetitive body postures and movements.

Classification of dynamic morphology. In accordance with its core objectives, dynamic morphology is subdivided into general, specialized (applied), and a borderland branch intersecting with biomechanics.

General Dynamic Morphology is the outcome of applying the kinesiological principle (from the Greek kinesis meaning movement)—that is, THE PRINCIPLE OF studying organs and body structures in direct relation to the movements they perform—to academic and scientific anatomy. This principle entails studying The Structure OF THE human body across various organizational levels—ranging from the organism as a whole (macroscopic, organismal level) down to the cellular and subcellular levels (micro- and ultramicroscopic)—focusing not merely on a systematic (system-by-system) or topographic approach, but rather on an activity-based approach imbued with an anatomical interpretation of motor activity.

⁶ During the lifetime of M.F. Ivanitsky, this branch of morphology was termed dynamic anatomy; however, in view of its enrichment with new content, the Subject Commission on Anatomy of the USSR Sports Committee deemed the new term more appropriate.

When analyzing human postures and movements, the motor apparatus is examined as an integral entity in conjunction with its support and regulatory systems. While the analysis of Bone Structure, joints, Muscles, and other organs relies primarily on Analytical Methods, dynamic morphology is predominantly driven by synthesis and generalization.

Specialized dynamic morphology examines the Anatomical Characteristics of body movements and postures in relation to the demands of sports, professional practice, pedagogy, daily life, and other fields. These insights are essential for refining sports techniques, addressing ergonomic challenges (such as the more rational design of workstations and control panels tailored to human capabilities), providing an ergonomic rationale for industrial and domestic equipment, and successfully developing novel training devices in sports, among other Applications.

When analyzing any body posture or movement from an anatomical perspective, it is essential to have a thorough understanding of the execution technique and a clear grasp of the targeted objective of the given exercise. Specialized dynamic morphology is integrated into every sports-pedagogical discipline, opening up new avenues for improving athletic technique and mastery.

The borderland branch intersecting with biomechanics investigates aspects of dynamic morphology related to the Location of centers of gravity (mass) and body volume, as well as the types and conditions of bodily equilibrium, and similar phenomena.

History of dynamic morphology. The history of this science is inextricably intertwined with The Development of anatomy, differential and sports morphology, and biomechanics.

Human movement has fascinated scientists since antiquity. As early as C. Galen (130–201), it was experimentally proven that joint movements are produced by muscles that contract under conscious control. He introduced METABOLISM/2.html">THE CONCEPT OF tonus (involuntary Muscle tension) as well as antagonistic muscle groups.

Abu Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037) devoted considerable attention to analyzing human postures and movements based on anatomical and mechanical data, demonstrating that human postures and movements are governed by the laws of mechanics.

A significant contribution to the study of Human and Animal locomotion belongs to G. Borelli (1608–1779). He developed a classification of locomotor movements (from the Latin locus meaning place and motio meaning movement)—displacements in space—dividing them into three main types based on the method of propulsion: pushing off from a support surface (walking, running, jumping), pushing off against the surrounding medium (swimming), and pulling oneself toward a support surface (climbing a rope or pole).

In the early 19th century, the Weber brothers experimentally and quite meticulously investigated walking, determining the inclination and vertical oscillations of the torso, step length and frequency, and the reduction of the double-support phase as walking speed increases. Utilizing pneumography (recording air pressure fluctuations within air chambers embedded in footwear), E. Marey identified the most energy-efficient and high-speed gaits (such as crouching-step walking). He studied The ratio of support and swing phases for each limb during walking and running, the flight phase in running, and other parameters.

In the late 19th century, W. Braune and O. Fischer experimentally determined the relative mass of human body parts and the positions of their centers of gravity using frozen cadavers. These data remain in active use today when analyzing human postures and movements.

In his book Outline of Work Movements (1901), I.M. Sechenov analyzed the 'working' elements of the motor apparatus: the configuration of bony levers, the arrangement of muscle pulls activating these levers, and the inertia of muscle contractions. He examined complex work Movements of the hand as a working organ and The FOOT as a body support. By analyzing the coordinated action of the torso and limbs, he formulated METHODOLOGICAL GUIDELINES FOR the rational Organization of muscular activity.

Utilizing cyclography—a method refined by himself and his disciples—N.A. Bernstein acquired novel data on the biodynamics of locomotion, uncovering age-related characteristics of locomotion, particularly walking.

P.F. Lesgaft and his disciples, A.A. Krasuskaya and E.A. Kotikova, played a pivotal role in establishing the scientific foundations of dynamic anatomy and demonstrating the necessity of this knowledge for physical education specialists. In 1874, P.F. Lesgaft published the book The Theory of Bodily Movements, followed in 1888 by A Guide to the Physical Education of School-Age Children, wherein he demonstrated that physical exercises must be selected based on the Structural organization of The Human Body. P.F. Lesgaft and his followers lectured on The Theory of Bodily Movements alongside anatomy for students of the Physical Education Courses. In 1927, the course Theory of Movements was established, which later evolved into Biomechanics of Physical Exercises under the leadership of E.A. Kotikova. In 1939, a textbook was published in which she examined human postures and movements less from a mechanical standpoint and more from an anatomical perspective.

Extensive work in the anatomical analysis of human postures and movements, aligned with the theoretical and practical demands of sports, was conducted by M.F. Ivanitsky. In 1928, he published Notes on Dynamic Anatomy, followed by Human Body Movements in 1938. The principles developed by M.F. Ivanitsky are reflected in all editions of anatomy textbooks for institutes and technical colleges of physical culture.