COMPREHENSIVE LECTURE NOTES IN ZOOLOGY

Module 1. ZOOLOGY AS A SCIENCE. SUBKINGDOM PROTOZOA

Content Module 1.1. Zoology as a Science

Topic 1.1.1. Zoology as a Science

History of zoology. Biodiversity of animals on Earth, in Ukraine, and in the Dnipropetrovsk region. Diversity of developmental cycles and body plans. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION of animals. Principles of animal Classification. Trophic specialization of animals. Animals as the largest systematic group of living organisms. The general role of animals in the biosphere and ecosystems, and their significance for humans. Various groups of zoophages, phytophages, saprophages, and parasites of plants, humans, and domestic animals, as well as vectors of pathogens. Importance of animals in The production of food and industrial goods. Protected animal species. History of zoology. Development of National zoological science. MODERN TRENDS IN zoological research. Principles of systematics and Taxonomy. Rules of animal description. Formation of scientific names. Challenges in animal classification. Animal life cycles. Morphology/12.html">ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS and The phenomenon of host switching. Dispersal pathways of parasites, specific and mechanical vectors. Transmissible and natural-focal parasitic diseases. Prominent zoologists: V. O. Dogel, V. M. Beklemishev, O. P. Markevych, Ye. N. Pavlovsky, K. I. Skrjabin, L. V. Hromashevsky, and others. Invertebrate zoology (5-8 million species, accounting for 60-70% of living species, with a fairly high rate of description) and Vertebrate zoology (nearly 45,000 species, close to the actual number). Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) and his "Systema naturae" (1758): Class, order, genus, and species. Family was added later. Over 8,000 invertebrate species are listed in the International and regional Red Data Books. The Red Data Book of Ukraine includes over 500 invertebrate species.

Subkingdom Protozoa, or single-celled organisms (Protozoa). Over 30,000 species. Morphologically and physiologically complete organisms. Average size ranges from 5 to 250 µm; Babesia bovis is 2–2.5 µm, while radiolarian colonies can reach 25 cm. Radial, bilateral, and helical (in flagellates and Ciliates) Symmetry. General cellular and specialized Organelles (glycocalyx made of mucopolysaccharides, receptor molecules, scales, Cell walls, or shells). Dense outer layer (ectoplasm); granular, fluid inner layer (endoplasm). Nuclear apparatus. Microfilaments and microtubules (4–10 nm in diameter) forming the Cytoskeleton, enabling the movement of pseudopodia, flagella, and cilia. Contractile vacuoles (1–2, sometimes 15–20) regulating osmotic pressure. Encystment. Types of Nutrition. Heterotrophs utilize phagocytosis (via cytostome) or pinocytosis (membrane invagination, similar to the process in epithelial Cells of the Small Intestine and nephrons in vertebrates). Autotrophs possess chromatophores. Novel types of organelles (supportive axostyle, radiolarian Skeleton). Increase in organelle number via polymerization. Selection/8.html">Asexual and sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction: monotomy, palintomy, multiple fission (schizogony), endodiogeny. Sexual reproduction: copulation, conjugation. In Multicellular Organisms, development is referred to as ontogeny (individual development), whereas in single-celled organisms, it is The life cycle. The most complex are life cycles involving the alternation of sexual and asexual reproduction (metagenesis), as well as Haploid and Diploid nuclear phases (nuclear cycle). Gametes are haploid, while the zygote is diploid. Three types of nuclear cycles.

1. With zygotic reduction: the major part of the cycle consists of haploid cells—found in plant-like and some animal-like flagellates, as well as apicomplexans.

2. With gametic reduction: the major part of the cycle consists of diploid cells—found in heliozoans, many animal-like flagellates, ciliates, myxosporeans, and multicellular organisms.

3. With intermediate reduction: half of the cycle is diploid (agamonts) and the other half is haploid (gamonts)—found in foraminiferans.