Human Anatomy (with the Fundamentals of Dynamic and Sports Morphology) - Ivanitsky, M. F. 2008

Morphological Characteristics of Athletes in Selected Specialties

Basketball. Basketball players are characterized by above-average height. For instance, the average height of 72 basketball players from 6 medal-winning teams at the XX Olympic Games was 196.4 cm, which is 11 cm taller than the other tournament participants.

Body height is closely related to a player's position on the court. Centers are the tallest, followed by forwards, and guards are the shortest, measuring 193, 187, and 179 cm, respectively. The number of basketball players exceeding two meters in top-tier teams increases year by year. Players of the 1980s surpassed athletes of previous decades in height. There is a distinct height difference between first-category athletes on the one hand, and a rather homogeneous group of master-of-sports and master-candidate athletes on the other: 196.9 cm versus 200.2 cm.

Regarding body proportions, basketball players most commonly exhibit a gigantoid type (long-legged, broad-shouldered — 47% of cases) or a teinoid type (long-legged, narrow-shouldered — 29% of cases). Among female basketball players, the gigantoid body proportion type was observed with a similar frequency (48%). Parateinoid types (long-legged, medium-shouldered — 16.8%), paragarmonoid types (medium-legged, broad-shouldered — 15.3%), and teinoid types (long-legged, narrow-shouldered — 6%) are less common among them. Consequently, 89% of male and 11% of female basketball players are long-legged. Women's body proportions are less specialized than those of men.

According to stereophotogrammetric observations, the torso shape of basketball players resembles an hourglass—it is wider at the top and bottom and narrower in the middle.

According to V. V. Bunak, the constitutional type of basketball players is thoracic or thoraco-muscular; according to Sheldon, it is 2—(5—6)—(2—4), i.e., mesomorphic with a degree of ectomorphy.

During sports Selection at early stages, preference is given to tall adolescents. However, one should not overlook the fact that their bodies are often functionally vulnerable, as The Development of The Cardiovascular system may lag behind longitudinal body growth. These adolescents are characterized by rapid fatigue.

Volleyball. Volleyball players are also quite tall. The average height of 72 Olympic medalists in Munich was 190.8 cm, while for the other 72 participants it was 185.5 cm.

Front-row players are taller and less harmoniously built than back-row players. The harmony of physique is disrupted by unilateral Muscle Hypertrophy of the dominant arm, as well as Scoliosis and accentuated thoracic Kyphosis.

Morphological criteria for sports selection in this discipline correspond to those noted for basketball.

Handball. Total body dimensions in handball players tend to increase with higher athletic qualifications. The average height of leading players is at least 190 cm. Those specializing in long-range throws are taller. The shortest players in this sport are the wingers (which provides them with speed and agility of movement).

Limb Asymmetry is manifested by greater linear and girth dimensions of the "throwing" arm and the "takeoff" leg, typically the right ones.

The predominant type of body proportion is gigantoid (long-legged, broad-shouldered) with a pronounced mesomorphic constitutional component. Female handball players differ very little in physique from non-athletes.

Football. Football players are not characterized by exceptional height. Goalkeepers have the largest body dimensions, while forwards have the smallest. Representatives of all constitutional types can be found among them, but most commonly 2-6-2 or 3-5-3 (according to Sheldon), i.e., mesomorphic with a certain degree of endomorphy and ectomorphy. In terms of total body dimensions, football players differ little from non-athletes. Selection should take into account not so much body size as endurance indicators (an athlete runs up to 8 km per match) and agility, as well as speed-strength qualities.

Ice Hockey. Ice hockey players feature a wide range of total body dimensions. The greatest heights are typical for forwards, while the greatest body masses are characteristic of defensemen. Goalkeepers are inferior to both in these parameters. Physical exertion in ice hockey is high (an athlete covers 5 km or more during a game). This complicates play for heavier players, yet they hold advantages in body-checking and physical play.

As hockey experience and tenure increase, muscle strength rises while the overall (total) joint mobility in the upper extremities decreases. In the JOINTS OF THE lower extremities, no dependence of mobility on athletic tenure is observed.

Among the sports games examined, endurance plays a major role in some (football, ice hockey), whereas speed-strength qualities are paramount in others (basketball, volleyball). For the former, total body dimensions are not critical and do not hinder high physical exertion, whereas height plays a significant role for the latter. Therefore, selection in these sports must account for different morphological and functional criteria.

Wrestling. In wrestling (as in boxing and weightlifting), athletes are grouped by body weight. However, body height must also be taken into consideration. In practice, adolescent and youthful wrestlers are selected based on height. For instance, at the Alexander Medved Prizes international freestyle wrestling tournament (Minsk, 1972), the East German wrestlers turned out to be the tallest across all weight classes. Tall stature gives wrestlers certain advantages, which is particularly important in the heavyweight division. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that as height increases, body mass and absolute muscular strength increase, whereas relative strength decreases.

A comparison of wrestlers with non-athletes shows that wrestlers have broader shoulders, a narrower pelvis (excluding heavyweights), and shorter arms. Body proportions depend on the weight Class: 88% of tall wrestlers (light-heavyweights and heavyweights) belong to the gigantoid type; 69% of athletes in the under-52 kg class belong to the styphroid and hypostyphroid types. Body size and proportions must be taken into account when planning a match against an opponent of a specific morphotype. Thus, in suplex throws, a tall wrestler succeeds against an opponent of similar height, but not against a short opponent, for whom executing such a technique is technically easier.

Wrestlers are characterized by a high Development of the mesomorphic body component (according to Sheldon) with a degree of ectomorphy. Scoring evaluation of top US wrestlers yielded the following average result: 3-5-4. According to V. V. Bunak's Classification, wrestlers belong to the muscular or musculo-abdominal constitutional type.

The proportion of the muscle component in the body mass of wrestlers across various weight classes is approximately the same at 48%. The fat component accounts for 8.8% in light-weight athletes and 15.2% in heavyweights. The bone component, while maintaining a relatively constant level across representatives of all weight classes, decreases in heavyweights.

Weightlifting. Athletes in this specialization are characterized by relatively short stature, above-average body mass, large chest girth, and a broad pelvis. Body dimensions and proportions correlate with belonging to a specific weight class. For example, from the under-52 kg weight class to the over-110 kg class, height increases from 153.1 to 183.4 cm, and chest girth increases from 86.8 to 124.1 cm. The arm length relative to body height remains practically constant across these weight classes at 43.6% and 44.4%, respectively. Relative leg length increases from 51.6% to 53.6%. Limb girths increase from one weight class to another (especially in the proximal segments).

Among heavyweights, 47% have a gigantoid proportion type and 40% have a paragarmonoid type; in the middle-weight class, 40% of athletes have a paragarmonoid type and 13% have a gigantoid type; in the light-weight class, 59% belong to the styphroid type and 14% to the hypostyphroid type. Thus, broad shoulders are characteristic of representatives across all three weight classes.

The constitutional type (according to Sheldon) is rated as 3-7-1 or 2-7-2. The mesomorphic component is the most developed. The muscle component varies across weight classes, making up more than 50% of body mass. Its greatest significance is observed in the under-100 kg category. The endomorphic (fat) component is most pronounced in the heavier weight classes. There is an inverse relationship between the development of the fat component and the level of athletic qualification.

Success in weightlifting is determined not so much by body proportions (which can vary) as by Muscle Development. Nevertheless, their specific features must be taken into account when shaping exercise execution technique.

Boxing. Total body dimensions of boxers depend on their weight class. Between the extreme weight categories, height ranges from 158.5 to 184.7 cm. When comparing middleweight and light-heavyweight boxers with handball players, ice hockey players, cyclists, and cross-country skiers (sports characterized predominantly by the development of speed-strength qualities and endurance), it was found that boxers trail only handball players in height. The length of their upper and lower extremities is identical to that of handball players, yet greater than that of athletes in other specializations. Boxers are distinguished by long forearms and shins.

Among boxers, 5 out of 9 body proportion types occur (according to V.V. Bunak): the gigantoid, paratheinoid, paraharmonoid,

stiphyroid, and hypostiphyroid types. The frequency of individual types varies across weight classes. In the under-51 kg weight class, all variants (except the paratheinoid) appear with equal frequency. In the under-60 kg weight classes, the paraharmonoid and gigantoid types are more common, while the stiphyroid type is less frequent. In the under-67 kg classes, the same 3 types are found, though the stiphyroid type is rarer. In the under-75 kg weight classes, the gigantoid body proportion type prevails. In classes over 75 kg, the primary type is gigantoid.

Consequently, boxers are characterized by broad shoulders, long to medium limbs, and a broad or medium pelvis. An important role is played by the length of the distal segment of the upper extremity—the forearm and hand.

Joint mobility in boxers is high, particularly in the elbow and hip joints. Transitioning from lighter to heavier weight classes, absolute muscular strength increases, while relative strength decreases from 7.4 to 6.8 kg per 1 kg of body mass.

Skiing. Total body dimensions in elite skiers vary within fairly wide ranges. For instance, among members of the USSR national team who participated in the Sapporo Olympic Games, body height was 164–179 cm for men and 161–168 cm for women. Differences in body height determine running technique, such as body lean and the frequency of arm and leg swings.

Cross-country skiers exhibit the same body proportion variants as non-athletes. However, in long-distance skiers, the brachyorphic body proportion type is more common. Over a 20 km distance, it characterizes more than half of the racers.

The constitutional type (according to Sheldon) is characterized by varying mesomorphy with moderate ectomorphy: 1-6-2 or 2-6-3.

Speed Skating. Speed skaters have a body height of 177.5–178.6 cm, a body mass of 72.4–76.8 kg, and a height-mass index of 430.0 g/cm.

Body proportions differ between all-around speed skaters and sprinters. All-around skaters are characterized by either long (43.4% of cases) or medium-length (56.6%) legs. Among sprinters, 75.2% have medium-length legs.

The Variability of body dimensions in speed skaters is quite significant. For example, among women, the range of body height values is 19 cm, and body mass is 13 kg.

In speed skating talent Structure/126.html">Identification and Selection, it is recommended to prioritize tall athletes (180–185 cm) with a robust body mass.

A comparison of speed skaters who showed the best and worst results in the 500 m race indicates that more successful athletes have greater body and leg length, greater body mass, as well as higher stride frequency and length. Therefore, many coaches select long-legged and tall adolescents for speed skating.

Cycling. Cycling is among the sports best studied by anatomists and physiologists. One reason for this is The ability to quantitatively assess work output using cycle ergometry. The correlation of cyclists' mechanical performance output with body length and mass is quite high (r = 0.61 and 0.58, respectively).

A cyclist's specialization is reflected in their morphological features. For example, masters of sports in pursuit races, compared to road cyclists, have greater body mass, lower leg length, greater thigh, calf, and arm girths, and a relatively short thigh.

Sprint cyclists generally have greater body length and mass than stayers (long-distance racers). However, these differences have tended to diminish in recent years, with stayers becoming larger.

In addition, it is necessary to account for vital capacity (VC), its ratio to body height, back and hand grip strength, and their derivatives.

Body proportions in swimmers depend on race distance and swimming speed. The higher the speed and the shorter the distance, the relatively shorter the torso, and the longer the arms, hands, and legs. However, in breaststroke and butterfly swimmers, the arms are relatively shorter than in freestylers (crawl swimmers). At the same time, the latter are distinguished by broad shoulders, narrow hips, and long, slender legs. Breaststrokers have a wide pelvis and a massive build.

Constitutionally, swimmers belong to the muscular (athletic) somatotype. In elite men, the muscular component accounts for 51–52%, and in women, 49–50% of body mass; the fat component accounts for 10–16% and 14–20%, respectively; the bone component (regardless of sex) accounts for 17–18%. However, the fat component varies in degree, reaching up to 32% in marathon swimmers. The swimmer's type is mesomorphic with a tendency toward endomorphy in those specializing in the 400 m and 1500 m distances.

G.S. Tumanyan and E.G. Martirosov recommend considering the following when selecting children for youth sports swimming schools:

1) total body dimensions (they should be large);

2) limb-to-torso proportion indices (for example, limb index = arm length × arm girth + leg length × thigh girth); the norm is 70 dm².

3) the parents' somatotype to rule out cases of familial short stature.

Diving. In terms of body height, divers practically do not differ from non-athletes, but their body mass is lower. Body dimensions vary widely; however, the torso and legs are relatively short, whereas the arms are long. Body proportions are mesomorphic with a tendency toward brachyomorphy. Body diameters are smaller than those of swimmers. The body shape is streamlined, resembling an elongated teardrop, which facilitates Water entry. During the competitive period, the fat component constitutes 6–11%, and the muscular component constitutes 50–53% of body mass. Athletic selection should consider not so much morphological indicators as flexibility and movement coordination.

Rowing. Rowers are characterized by tall stature, broad shoulders, and a wide pelvis. A rower's torso resembles an inverted truncated cone. Athletes engaged in sweep rowing (regardless of sex) are distinguished by long legs, feet and hands, and medium-length arms. According to V.V. Bunak's classification, men exhibit gigantoid body proportions (68.7% of cases), less frequently paratheinoid or theinoid; women are characterized by gigantoid (46.5%) or paratheinoid (43.3%) proportions.

Sweep rowers have larger body dimensions than kayak sprint paddlers, and the latter surpass canoeists. Canoeists are characterized by an asymmetry in the dimensions of the "pulling" and "pushing" arms (length and girths are greater in the "pulling" arm). Despite inferior morphological prerequisites, kayak paddlers are capable of achieving high results (often in long-distance events), though this requires them to spend significantly more time in training.

Thus, comparing swimmers, divers, and rowers reveals that large body size plays a crucial role in the selection of swimmers and rowers, while being less significant for divers. Joint flexibility and muscle strength are also of considerable importance.

Track and field. The body height of sprint runners is shorter than that of athletes specializing in the 200 m and 400 m events, reaching its minimum values in marathoners. Body mass follows a different pattern: for 100 m and 400 m runners, it exceeds 70 kg, whereas for longer-distance runners it decreases, dropping to 60 kg in marathoners. Greater body height is characteristic of throwers and high jumpers.

When comparing sprinters and jumpers of the same height, sprinters exhibit greater girth and transverse body dimensions, while jumpers have greater longitudinal limb dimensions. Most track and field athletes belong to the gigantoid body proportion type (long legs and broad shoulders). Among runners, long-legged and narrow-shouldered athletes can also be found. Marathoners of average height show varying shoulder widths, or broad shoulders when combined with tall stature. Furthermore, half of them belong to the paraharmonoid type—medium-legged with broad shoulders. The predominant constitutional component of track and field athletes is mesomorphic (according to Sheldon).

Morphological characteristics influence success in track and field events in various ways. It is believed that running speed is limited not so much by body structure as by speed-strength qualities. When selecting sprinters, physique features should be taken into account only during the initial, broad "screening" phase. Afterward, they give way to pedagogical tests. However, in throwers as well as long and high jumpers, morphological features undoubtedly impact the level of performance.

Artistic gymnastics. Male gymnasts are of average height with a relatively low body mass (165 cm and 60 kg). Female gymnasts have a short to medium height, broad shoulders, narrow pelvis, and certain masculinization traits (male body build type)—with a height of 159 cm and a body mass of 47 kg. Male gymnasts are characterized by a short torso, a narrowed pelvis, and short arms. Their constitution features pronounced mesomorphy: 2–6–2, 1–7–1, 2–7–2, or most frequently 1–7–2. In women, the somatotype is less specific (for example, 1–4–3).

During selection, preference should be given to individuals of average or below-average height (for their age group) with a mesomorphic physique, possessing a wide range of motion in the shoulder and hip joints as well as the joints of THE Vertebral Column.