Military Hygiene and Hygiene in Emergency Situations - K.O. Pashka 2005

Fundamentals of organizing sanitary and hygienic measures in ground forces during peacetime emergencies and wartime. Hygiene of field quartering of troops and the population.
Sanitary supervision of waste management and sanitation in emergency areas and battlefields.

Monitoring the cleaning of the area, the removal and disinfection of sewage and refuse, as well as the clearance of battlefields and emergency areas and the burial of the dead (casualties), is one of the tasks of routine sanitary inspection.

The cleaning of the area (Location) of a military unit (subdivision) from sewage and refuse is carried out using the forces and assets of the unit (subdivision), while the areas where the affected population is located are cleared by the respective municipal units.

Monitoring of their complete removal and the quality of disinfection is carried out by the medical service (Representatives of the Sanitary and epidemiological service of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine facilities). It involves checking the correctness, timeliness, and completeness of the collection, removal, and disinfection of sewage and refuse, as well as maintaining continuous surveillance over the deployment areas of the unit (formation) or the affected population in order to promptly identify factors that may negatively affect the Sanitary and hygienic condition of the personnel (population). If necessary, personnel of the medical (sanitary and epidemiological) service develop and submit proposals to the command (leadership of the state administration) on eliminating harmful factors that adversely affect the sanitary and hygienic condition of military units (groups of the affected population).

Both during military operations and As a result of natural disasters or man-made catastrophes, a significant number of dead and deceased people, as well as birds and animals, may appear. For example, following the earthquake in the Indian state of Gujarat (January 2001), the death toll under collapsed buildings exceeded 50,000 According to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, and in the Iranian city of Bam (December 2003) – more than 35,000 residents. Therefore, this issue is relevant for all countries, especially in densely populated areas.

Sanitary oversight of the clearance of battlefields or emergency areas from the dead and those who died from wounds and diseases involves the participation of a medical (sanitary and epidemiological) service representative in selecting the site (burial ground, mass grave, cremation site) for the burial, as well as in monitoring compliance with burial (cremation) rules. During the funeral, supervision is exercised over the Structure/175.html">Implementation of disinfection measures for the corpses being buried, or the completeness of their incineration is verified, along with the proper and complete burning or burying of Materials hazardous to human health. It is necessary to monitor the provision of special clothing to the personnel of units (teams) assigned to clean up battlefields (emergency areas) during these operations, as well as to organize the washing of personnel (workers) after the end of each work shift.

Sanitary oversight of the clearance of battlefields and areas affected by natural disasters or man-made catastrophes from the dead and deceased is carried out by the forces and assets of the medical service of units (formations) and sanitary-epidemiological institutions of the Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Health, within whose responsibility zone such areas fall.

Removal of Liquid Waste

Following natural disasters, it is usually difficult to establish satisfactory waste removal. If emergency measures are not taken to restore the existing liquid waste management system of a settlement or to create a new one, problems with maintaining collective hygiene requirements may arise, resulting in soil and Water source contamination. This, in turn, will lead to an increase in morbidity among the population and military personnel (especially acute intestinal infections and helminthic infestations); the creation of conditions for fly breeding in such areas; and The Emergence of unpleasant odors and harmful vapors during the warm season.

In each specific situation, the implementation of waste removal measures will depend on the available capabilities of the response forces involved in disaster relief and the relevant local municipal utility units tasked with this assignment.

During natural disasters in settlements with liquid waste disposal systems, sewerage networks may be partially or completely destroyed, and wastewater Treatment facilities may be disabled.

For example, earthquakes frequently destroy sewer pipe systems, collectors, wastewater treatment plants, and pumping stations; floods can clog sewer pipes and submerge pumping stations and treatment facilities. Emergency situations can also arise when industrial wastewater enters the sewage system. The latter typically contain toxic substances that inhibit biological processes at treatment plants, thereby preventing the proper purification of contaminated water.

Priority measures to be implemented include:

- inspecting the sewage system to identify destroyed sections;

- urgent repair of sewer pipes with the temporary isolation of damaged sections if necessary;

- cleaning and flushing of clogged pipes;

- pumping out water from the premises of pumping stations and water treatment facilities;

- temporary shutdown of wastewater treatment facilities (mainly during floods, when large volumes of diluted sewage are formed that exceed their capacity);

- discharging sewage into pits with subsequent burial, or transporting settled sludge to operating facilities located near wastewater treatment sites;

- treating damaged sewer pipes with concentrated disinfecting solutions to prevent The formation of unpleasant odors from accumulated floodwaters and sewage;

- construction of temporary sanitary facilities for wastewater treatment.

To restore the sewage system, the engineering reconnaissance group of the municipal utility service conducts an inspection and draws up a corresponding report on the state of the system and The Scope of its destruction, which must reflect:

- a Description of the situation at the disaster site, indicating the overall scale of flooding, as well as streets and lower floors of buildings;

- data on the state of pumping stations and treatment facilities, and on the number of damaged and clogged pipes to be replaced, indicating their length and dimensions, a list of required building materials, technical means, other property, and repair equipment such as bulldozers, excavators, trucks, pumps, and tools, accompanied by calculations of the specialists required to perform repair work and restore the operation of equipment at treatment plants and pumping stations;

- recommendations on arranging terrain sites for the temporary diversion of wastewater;

- determining The Need for the construction of temporary latrines, indicating the required number and locations for their installation (in cases where the sewage system cannot be quickly restored).

The following types of latrines are considered most suitable for temporary use:

a) shallow trench latrines; b) deep trench latrines; c) pit latrines; d) bored-hole latrines; e) urinal facilities; f) mobile toilets.

Constructing public latrines where maintaining cleanliness is difficult is advisable only when the aftermath of an emergency will be short-lived. Connecting public latrines to a water supply system facilitates compliance with sanitary requirements. Provision should be made for 5 toilet seats per 100 people (maintained separately in different sections for men and women). Latrines must be located downslope from all water sources and at a distance of at least 15 m from them. In areas where groundwater is used for drinking and other purposes, the bottom of the latrine pit must be located 1.5 m above the groundwater table. If latrines are built on limestone formations and fractured rocks, additional precautionary measures must be taken to protect local water sources. The site selected for latrines must be dry, adequately drained, and situated above the flood level; there should be no vegetation, refuse dumps, or garbage piles in the immediate vicinity of the latrine.

A shallow trench latrine is a simple trench excavated using a standard shovel. Its width is 30 cm, and its depth ranges from 90 to 150 cm. The length of the trench depends on the number of users—allocating 3 to 3.5 linear meters per 100 people. Separate trenches are arranged for men and women. The excavated soil is piled on both sides of the trench, and shovels are placed nearby so that users can cover their feces with a 5–10 cm layer of soil after each use. Informational and educational campaigns on the necessity of this preventive measure must be conducted among the population and rescue personnel. If this practice is neglected, specially designated sanitary teams must perform this task at least twice a day to prevent fly breeding and the spread of foul odors. To prevent trench collapse and cave-ins, the walls are reinforced with boards and planks. Latrine enclosures can be constructed from canvas, boards, corrugated metal sheets, or slate, or effectively replaced by dense bushes. Latrines should be supplied with toilet paper, and it is also advisable to provide water stored in containers with taps for hygienic purposes, such as handwashing and ablution.

This type of latrine is typically used for no longer than one week. When the trench fills to a level 30 cm below the ground surface, it is backfilled with earth, compacted, and topped with a low mound. If necessary, a new trench is excavated nearby.

A deep trench latrine is intended for longer-term use, ranging from several weeks to several months. Such a trench has a depth of 1.8–2.5 m and a width of 75–90 cm. The upper part of the trench is covered with boards containing openings for defecation. A superstructure made of salvaged materials is erected over the trench to provide enclosure and shelter from precipitation. All other requirements are identical to those for shallow trench latrines.

A pit latrine is constructed in areas dominated by loose soil. It is built either for individual families or at a rate of one per tent housing multiple families. Given a sufficient supply of tools, the bulk of the construction work can be performed by the evacuees themselves. For latrine flooring, mass production of concrete slabs with aperture holes can be organized. In long-term camps and regions where hygienic practices such as post-defecation washing are customary, a drainage device should be incorporated into the slabs. The superstructure above the latrine must be built more solidly.

Bored-hole latrines are constructed in areas where soil strata are free of rock formations. This type of latrine allows for the rapid disposal of excreta. Using earth augers, each family can be provided with a separate latrine following evacuation from an emergency zone. Mass production of concrete flooring slabs for these latrines can also be organized in settlements housing evacuees. If augers are in short supply, shallow trench latrines should be used instead.

Urinal facilities are installed in the men's sections of public latrines to reduce the demand for toilet seats. It is recommended to install one urinal per 25 men. To eliminate unpleasant odors, urinal facilities must be treated daily with a chlorine solution. Regardless of the type of urinal facility used, a soakage pit must be provided.

Mobile toilets are tanks mounted on trucks, buses, or railway flatcars. They are used not only during disaster relief operations but also routinely in suburban areas lacking sewage systems. In emergency areas, they are deployed where the groundwater table is high. Sanitary personnel must ensure the timely emptying, flushing, and disinfection of these tanks.

Wastewater from field medical facilities (first-aid posts, hospitals, etc.), public catering establishments, and water distribution points must be disposed of in compliance with all sanitary standards. Typically, they are discharged into soakage pits. A grease trap or absorption trench may be constructed upstream to prevent the rapid clogging of the pits. Wastewater from catering facilities and bathhouses contains fats and soap, which significantly reduce the filtration rate in soakage pits. In such cases, grease traps are installed prior to the soakage pits. Dry streambeds may also be used for wastewater drainage, provided that precautionary measures against mosquito breeding are enforced. Subsurface drainage is recommended only for permanent camps. In areas with non-hygroscopic soil and a hot, relatively dry climate, evaporation Methods can be utilized. For this purpose, wastewater is poured into shallow pans filled on a rotational basis to prevent mosquito breeding.

Disposal of Solid Waste

Solid waste requiring disposal includes various types of refuse, manure, and the carcasses of animals and birds.

The absence of a properly organized solid waste disposal system can lead to the proliferation of vector-borne infectious diseases.

This necessitates effective measures for the collection, storage, and disposal of garbage and manure, as well as the prompt removal and burial of animal and bird carcasses. In urban areas and their vicinities where waste collection and disposal systems functioned prior to the emergency, priority is given to restoring or expanding the capacity of the existing infrastructure. Various types of equipment and transport vehicles, both specialized and general-purpose trucks, can be utilized for this purpose.

Waste disposal may be carried out by burial, incineration, or dumping at an open site, provided that sanitary regulations established by current legislation are strictly observed in all cases.

Deep burial is one of the optimal methods for waste disposal. Heavy earthmoving machinery for digging pits or trenches can be provided by military units or industrial enterprises. Refuse is dumped into pits, compacted, covered with a layer of soil, and compacted again. Three methods of burial are employed:

- trench method: a long ditch is excavated, and the excavated soil is used to cover the compacted refuse;

- quarry method: a depleted working layer of a quarry is used for waste disposal;

- ravine method: dumping waste into gullies, ravines, or depressions and covering it with earth is recommended in marshy areas where soil conditions preclude The Use of heavy trenching equipment.

Burial is also advisable in small camps lacking earthmoving machinery. A trench 1.5 m long and 2 m deep is excavated manually. Refuse is dumped into it and covered with a 20–30 cm layer of soil at the end of each day. When the fill reaches within 40 cm of the top, the trench is completely backfilled, the top layer is compacted, and a new trench is excavated nearby. After 4–6 months, the Contents of the backfilled trench can be used as fertilizer. To calculate the required length of a trench filled over one week, an allowance of 1 m per 200 residents is used.

Collection and Removal of Refuse

It is necessary to determine the daily volume of generated waste, establish collection frequencies, calculate the required number and capacity of containers and transport vehicles, estimate personnel needs, and identify final disposal methods and sites for dumping, burial, or incineration. Under emergency conditions, trucks of all types can be used for garbage removal. However, compaction trucks are the most hygienically convenient. The use of such vehicles reduces the number of trips required and minimizes waste scattering during transport. Typically, a truck is operated by a driver and two loaders who, making three trips per day to the disposal site, can service a cAMP with a population of 5,000 to 8,000 people.

To expedite waste removal operations, it is recommended to provide separate containers for organic and inorganic refuse. Containers for organic waste are made of denser material than those for inorganic garbage; they must be easily washable, watertight, and tightly fitted with lids. However, in emergency conditions, empty food packaging and single-use waterproof paper or plastic bags can be used temporarily for these purposes. The capacity of waste containers should not exceed 100 liters. It is suggested to provide 3–4 containers per 100 people, placed not on the ground but on wooden platforms near residential quarters. In large catering facilities established for the affected population, it is advisable to install concrete waste collection chambers featuring a bottom slope to allow water washing. They must be emptied and washed daily.

Waste incineration is used only when burial is impossible or impractical for certain reasons. However, burning very wet garbage requires the application of fuel. Refuse from first-aid stations and hospitals containing pathogen-infected material must be incinerated regardless of the primary waste disposal method employed in the area. A simple wire mesh basket mounted on an iron cylinder or stone base can be used for incineration. To ensure complete combustion within the container, a small amount of kerosene or other liquid fuel may be added beforehand if necessary.

Open dumping is the least acceptable method of waste disposal. In exceptional situations during major natural disasters, the transportation of waste to sites suitable for unloading and burning is permitted. A mandatory condition in such cases is the supervision of sanitary personnel to ensure compliance with environmental hygiene standards. Before removal, tin cans must be flattened to prevent them from becoming mosquito breeding grounds. Dumped garbage is covered with soil to prevent the entry and reproduction of flies and rodents.

Manure disposal. During natural disasters in rural areas, the collection and removal of manure may be temporarily disrupted; manure attracts flies and serves as a favorable breeding ground for them. To collect manure, special pits made of concrete rings can be constructed, with the bottom of each pit cemented. Their capacity is calculated to hold the manure accumulated over a 24-hour period. At least two pits must be provided—while one is being filled, the other can be cleaned and washed out. The floor near the pit should slope toward a drainage trench connected to a soakaway pit. Daily removal of manure is the responsibility of a specially designated camp crew.

Manure disposal, like Other types of waste, can be carried out through burial, composting, or incineration. During a natural disaster, the most acceptable method is burying manure in deep trenches, similar to those used for general waste burial. The humus formed in the trench can be used as fertilizer after 4–6 months of anaerobic decomposition.

Disposal of animal and bird carcasses

The Significance of animal and bird carcass disposal can increase dramatically as a result of certain natural disasters, primarily floods. In cases of mass mortality of livestock and birds, trenches must be dug for their burial using heavy earthmoving equipment. If such equipment is unavailable, a combined method of burial and incineration can be used. To reduce fuel consumption, the Internal Organs of the animals are buried, while their carcasses are cremated. For more effective control over these Procedures, it is recommended to carry out operations centrally at designated animal burial sites. Carcasses that cannot be buried immediately must be doused with kerosene or other petroleum products to protect them from scavengers.