Vertebrate Zoology - V. M. Konstantinov 2011

Chordates
Terrestrial, or Four-Legged, Vertebrates — Vertebrates with Embryonic Membranes
Class Aves — Subclass Neornithes, or True Birds — Superorder Neognathae, or Typical Birds — Order Gruiformes

Cranes and related birds (Gruiformes) are large running birds (comprising about 200 species) with elongated necks, legs, and bills, and short tails. Most species feature an elongated Trachea that forms several loops within the sternal keel, which enables them to produce loud trumpeting calls.

They inhabit nearly all regions, primarily wetlands and steppes. The true crane family (Gruidae) includes 14 species. The most common is the Eurasian crane (Grus grus), a large bird reaching up to 120 cm in height and weighing up to 6 kg, distributed everywhere except the tundra and high-altitude regions. It nests in secluded areas, woodland bogs, river floodplains, and less frequently in steppes. The nest is built on the ground, containing 2 to 3 eggs, which are incubated by both parents. The chicks are precocial. Their diet consists of roots, worms, insects, frogs, reptiles, and mice. In late summer, they occasionally visit crop fields, causing minor local damage. In the steppe regions of southern Russia, the demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) nests, weighing around 2.5 kg. In northern Siberia, the rare and distinctive Siberian crane, or white crane (Grus leucogeranus), can occasionally be found. All cranes are migratory birds, wintering in South Asia and Africa.

Due to their rarity, many species are listed in Red Data Books. Conservation measures are underway to breed rare species in captivity at the Oka Nature Reserve.

The rail family (Rallidae) comprises 120 small to medium-sized meadow, marsh, and partly aquatic birds with slightly elongated necks and short legs. The bill is laterally compressed with perforate nostrils. The wings are short and rounded; these birds fly poorly, run well, and climb very skillfully through dense herbaceous vegetation. Some are capable of swimming. They nest on the ground or on flattened vegetation. Clutch size ranges from 3 to 12 eggs, with an incubation period of about 20 days. The chicks are precocial, and both parents take part in rearing them. They feed on greenery, seeds, and invertebrates. Many species are primarily nocturnal or crepuscular. They are widely distributed, with 8 genera and 13 species represented in the fauna of Russia.

The corncrake, or landrail (Crex crex), lives in meadows among tall grass; it is a small bird (weighing up to 200 g) with a characteristic grating call and a secretive lifestyle. Various species of rails inhabit grassy marshes, including the spotted crake (Porzana porzana) and the common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus). The Eurasian coot (Fulica atra), a relatively large bird (weighing up to 1000 g), inhabits the shores of overgrown lakes. It is an excellent swimmer and dives skillfully when threatened. This is the only species in the group of game significance.

The subfamily of bustards (Otididae) unites large and medium-sized birds with an appearance somewhat reminiscent of domestic fowl. Their necks are of moderate length, and their legs are relatively long with three toes. The bill is short. They are inhabitants of the steppes and deserts of the Eastern Hemisphere. Due to their arid habitat, the uropygial gland is absent. Males possess a gular pouch connected to the Pharynx that acts as a vocal resonator. Three species are found in Russia. The most common is the great bustard (Otis tarda), a very large bird (weighing up to 16 kg) inhabiting the steppe zone. It nests in feather grass and forb steppes, and less often among crop fields. In spring, they live in pairs, but only the female incubates the eggs. The clutch contains 2 to 6 eggs, with an incubation period of about 30 days; the chicks are precocial. Outside the breeding season, they gather in flocks. They migrate south for the winter. Hunting of all species is prohibited.

The virgin lands of the steppes are home to the lesser bustard (Tetrax tetrax), a smaller species about the size of a chicken. Biologically similar to the great bustard, it is never found in plowed areas. It winters in the South Caucasus and India, while terns are distributed throughout Russia. These are numerous birds that often nest in colonies. A typical representative is the common tern (Sterna hirundo).

The relict gull (L. relictus) and Audouin's gull (L. audouinii) are listed in the IUCN Red List.

Suborder Alcidae (Auks)

Auks are specialized oceanic birds of northern seas, well-adapted for swimming and diving. When diving, they propel themselves using their wings rather than their feet. They range from medium (duck-sized) to small (weighing from 80–100 g to 1.1 kg). Their bodies are elongated, with a short and poorly defined neck, and their legs always have three toes, positioned far back toward the tail. When perched, the bird rests on its entire FOOT and tail. The wings are short and held tightly against the body. The bill shape is extremely diverse, and their plumage is very dense. The group comprises a single family, the Alcidae (auks). The following species are common within Russia.

Puffins (Fratercula) are easily distinguished by their exceptionally high, strongly compressed bills. One species (Fr. arctica) is distributed in the northern and middle PARTS OF THE Atlantic, while another (Fr. corniculata) is found predominantly in the northern Pacific Ocean. They form colonies along high rocky coasts or soft earthen banks, nesting in self-dug burrows or rock crevices.

Guillemots and murrelets (Cepphus) are birds about the size of a small duck, featuring an elongated bill that is not laterally compressed. Four species inhabit the coasts and islands of Arctic and Far Eastern seas, nesting on high rocky shores, frequently in caves and burrows.

Murres (Uria) are the largest Representatives of the order (about the size of a medium duck) with an elongated conical bill. The upperparts and HEAD are brownish-black, and the underparts are white. Two species of murres (U. lomvia, U. aalge) nest along the Murman coast, on Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, and other islands of the polar seas, as well as along the coasts of the North Pacific. They nest in colonies on rocky ledges. The clutch consists of a single egg (see Fig. 146), with an incubation period of 5 weeks. At 2 to 3 weeks of age, the chicks take to the Water, where their parents continue to feed them. The global population exceeds 11 million pairs, with over half residing in the Pacific.

Suborder Charadrii (Waders)

A numerous order of small to medium-sized birds, mostly long-legged and long-billed, with pointed wings and short tails. They are distributed worldwide, typically near water bodies and marshes, and less commonly in deserts. They usually nest solitarily on the ground, though some species, such as the green sandpiper, nest in trees. The clutch typically consists of four eggs, and the chicks are precocial. The suborder contains about 200 species, over 50 of which live in Russia. Only a few species are mentioned below.

The plover family (Charadriidae) includes large or medium-sized waders with a straight, short, but strong bill that has a hardened tip; their legs are relatively long, and the hind toe is either small or absent. Several species inhabit the tundra and northern forest zones, such as the European golden plover (Pluvialis apricaria), the grey plover (P. squatarola), and others. They are most frequently found in boggy moss tundras, and less often along river and lake mudflats. They nest in pairs without forming dense aggregations, though they gather into small flocks after the young fledge.

Lapwings are widespread in our region. The northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) is easily distinguished from other species by its crest on the back of the head, black upperparts, and white flanks and breast. It is about the size of a small pigeon and is distributed throughout Russia, except for the tundra belt. It nests in colonies in damp meadows and marshes.

Sandpipers and snipes of the family Scolopacidae possess long bills that are soft and sensitive at the tip in most species. Their legs are typically long and four-toed. This family includes the majority of species in the order; only a few are mentioned below.

Curlews (Numenius) are large waders (about the size of a small duck) with a long, downward-curved bill and very long four-toed legs. Four species nest in Russia. The most common is the Eurasian curlew (Numenius arquata), which nests in steppes, river floodplains, and large bogs. It winters in the South Caucasus, India, and Africa.

The ruff (Philomachus pugnax) is remarkable for the great diversity of breeding plumage in males, which develop a brightly colored ruff in spring. Unlike most other waders, ruffs do not form pairs, and males stay in small flocks throughout the mating season. They nest in bogs either solitarily or in small groups, and are distributed primarily in the tundras and forest-tundras of Eurasia.

The Eurasian woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) is one of the largest waders (weighing 300–450 g). It nests throughout the forest zone of Russia, excluding its northernmost strip. It winters in South Asia and partly in Southern Europe, and is common in winter in the Caucasus, Crimea, and Turkmenistan. In spring, woodcocks perform a unique courtship display known as 'roding'. After sunset, male woodcocks fly over forest clearings while making distinctive vocalizations, specifically croaking and clicking sounds. Females occasionally take part in roding as well, but do so silently or only clicking. Great snipes and common snipes are closely related to woodcocks, but they inhabit damp meadows or grassy marshes rather than forests. They winter in the same regions as woodcocks and are popular game birds for sport hunting.