Human Anatomy - Kotsan I. Ya. 2009

Bones and Their Connections
Elementary movements in joints around the main axes

Joint movements can occur around three main axes: frontal, sagittal, and vertical.

Around the frontal axis — flexion and extension (flexio, extensio).

Around the sagittal axis — abduction and adduction (abductio, adductio) (for the limbs) and lateral flexion (for the trunk and HEAD).

Around the vertical axis — pronation (pronatio) and supination (supinatio) (for the limbs) and rotation (rotatio) for the trunk and head.

Intersection of all axes allows for a complex circular motion known as circumduction (circumductio).

Joints should be described According to the following outline:

1) name of the joint;

2) articular surfaces of the bones forming the joint;

3) Classification of the joint by structural complexity (simple, compound, complex, combined);

4) shape of the joint;

5) axes of rotation and associated movements;

6) accessory structures.



Last update: 08/08/2026

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